Jesus
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Jesus | |
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Born | 7–2 BC[1] |
Died | 30–36 AD[3] Judea, Roman Empire |
Cause of death | Crucifixion[4] |
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Jesus (/[invalid input: 'icon']ˈdʒiːzəs/; Greek: Ἰησοῦς, translit. Iēsous; 7–2 BC to 30–36 AD), also referred to as Jesus of Nazareth, is the central figure of Christianity, whom the teachings of most Christian denominations hold to be the Son of God.[6] Christians believe Jesus to be the awaited Messiah of the Old Testament and refer to him as Jesus Christ or simply Christ,[7] a name that is also used by non-Christians.
Virtually all modern scholars of antiquity agree that a historical Jesus existed,[8] although there is little agreement on the reliability of the gospel narratives and their assertions of his divinity.[9] Most scholars agree that Jesus was a Jewish teacher from Galilee, was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified in Jerusalem on the orders of the Roman prefect, Pontius Pilate.[10][11] Scholars have constructed various portraits of the historical Jesus, which often depict him as having one or more of the following roles: the leader of an apocalyptic movement, Messiah, a charismatic healer, a sage and philosopher, or a social reformer who preached of the "Kingdom of God" as a means for personal and egalitarian social transformation.[12][13] Scholars have correlated the New Testament accounts with non-Christian historical records to arrive at an estimated chronology of Jesus' life.[14][15]
Most Christians believe that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of a virgin, performed miracles, founded the Church, died sacrificially by crucifixion to achieve atonement, rose from the dead, and ascended into heaven, from which he will return.[16] The majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, who is the Second Person of the Holy Trinity.[17] A few Christian groups reject Trinitarianism, wholly or partly, as non-scriptural.[17][18]
In Islam, Jesus (commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's important prophets.[19] To Muslims, Jesus is a bringer of scripture and the product of a virgin birth, but not divine or the victim of crucifixion. Judaism rejects the belief that Jesus was the awaited Messiah, arguing that he did not fulfill the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh.[20] Bahá'í scripture almost never refers to Jesus as the Messiah, but calls him a Manifestation of God.[21]
Etymology of names
In the Christian Bible, Jesus is referred to as "Jesus from Nazareth" (Matthew 21:11), "Joseph's son" (Luke 4:12), and "Jesus of Nazareth, the son of Joseph" (John 1:45). Paul the Apostle most often referred to Jesus as "Jesus Christ", "Christ Jesus", or "Christ".[22] In the Quran, the central religious text of Islam, he is referred to as Template:Rtl-lang (‘Īsa).[23][24]
"Jesus" is a Latin transliteration, occurring in a number of languages and based on the Greek Ἰησοῦς (Iēsoûs),[25] which is a hellenization of the Aramaic/Hebrew Template:Rtl-lang (Yēšūă‘), a post-Exilic modification of the Hebrew Template:Rtl-lang (Yĕhōšuă‘, Joshua).[26] The etymology of the name Jesus in the context of the New Testament is generally given as "Yahweh saves"[27] or "Yahweh is salvation".[28] The name Yēšūă‘ appears to have been in use in Judea at the time of the birth of Jesus.[29] The first-century works of historian Flavius Josephus refer to at least twenty different people with this name.[30] Philo's reference in Mutatione Nominum item 121 indicates that the etymology of the name Joshua was known outside Judea at the time.[31]
"Christ" (/[invalid input: 'icon']ˈkraɪst/) is derived from the Greek Χριστός (Khrīstos), meaning "the anointed one", a translation of the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ (Māšîaḥ), usually transliterated into English as "Messiah" (/[invalid input: 'icon']m[invalid input: 'ɨ']ˈsaɪ.ə/).[32] In the Septuagint version of the Hebrew Bible (written well over a century before the time of Jesus), the word "Christ" (Χριστός) was used to translate the Hebrew word "Messiah" (מָשִׁיחַ) into Greek.[33] In Matthew 16:16, the apostle Peter's profession "You are the Christ" identifies Jesus as the Messiah.[34] In postbiblical usage, "Christ" became viewed as a name—one part of "Jesus Christ"—but originally it was a title ("Jesus the Anointed").[35]
Chronology
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Most scholars agree that Jesus was a Galilean Jew who was born around the beginning of the first century and died between 30 and 36 AD in Judea.[36] Amy-Jill Levine states that the general scholarly consensus is that Jesus was a contemporary of John the Baptist and was crucified by Roman governor Pontius Pilate, who reigned from 26 to 36 AD.[37] Most scholars hold that Jesus lived in Galilee and Judea and did not preach or study elsewhere.[38][39][40]
The general scholarly agreement on the historicity of Jesus' interactions with John the Baptist and with Pilate shapes the approximate chronological picture. In the Antiquities of the Jews, first-century historian Josephus places the execution of the Baptist before the defeat of Herod Antipas by Aretas IV in 36 AD;[41][42] and the dates of Pilate's reign are well established by Roman sources.[43]
Two independent approaches have been used to estimate the year of Jesus' birth. One collates the Nativity accounts in the Gospels with other historical data; the other works backwards from the estimated start of his ministry.[44] The first approach applies Matthew 2:1, which associates the birth of Jesus with the reign of Herod the Great, who died around 4 BC, and Luke 1:5, which mentions that Herod was on the throne shortly before the birth of Jesus.[45] However, Luke's gospel also associates the birth with the first census, which took place in 6 AD.[46] The second approach ignores the Nativity accounts and considers the statement in John 2:13–20 that the temple in Jerusalem was in its 46th year of construction at the start of Jesus' ministry. Correlating this with Josephus' dating of the death of John the Baptist, and working backwards from the statement in Luke 3:23 that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at the start of his ministry,[47] yields a date of 27–29 AD.[48] Elsewhere, John 8:57 states that Jesus was less than 50 years old. Some scholars thus estimate 28 AD to be roughly the 32nd birthday of Jesus.[49][50] Most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC,[51] but some propose a wider range between 7 and 2 BC.[52]
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The years of Jesus' ministry have been estimated using three different approaches.[53][48][54] The first applies the reference in Luke 3:1–2 to the start of the ministry of John the Baptist in the 15th year of Tiberius' reign and the statement of Acts 10:37–38 that John's ministry preceded that of Jesus. The dates of Tiberius reign are known, and these indicate a date of around 28–29 AD for the start of Jesus' ministry.[55][48][56] The second approach uses the statement about the temple in John 2:13–20, together with Josephus' statement that the temple's reconstruction was started by Herod in the 18th year of his reign, to estimate a date around 27–29 AD.[14] The third method uses the date of the death of John the Baptist and the marriage of Herod Antipas to Herodias, based on the writings of Josephus, and correlates it with Matthew 14:4 and Mark 6:18.[41] Given that most scholars date the marriage of Herod and Herodias as AD 28–35, this yields a date about 28–29 AD.[53][57][50][58]
A number of approaches have been used to estimate the year of the Crucifixion of Jesus, scholars generally agreeing that he died between 30–36 AD.[3] One approach relies on the dates of the prefecture of Pilate, who was the Roman governor of Judea from 26 AD until 36 AD, after which he was replaced by Marcellus (reigned 36–37 AD).[59][60][61] Another approach, which yields the latest year possible for the Crucifixion, is to work backwards from the trial of the Apostle Paul in Achaea, Greece, by Roman proconsul Gallio, the date of whose reign is confirmed in the Delphi Inscription discovered in the 20th century at the Temple of Apollo.[62][63] The conversion of Paul is estimated at around 33–36 AD, and Jesus must have died before this.[62][63][64]
Isaac Newton was one of the first astronomers to estimate the precise date of the Crucifixion, and his reasoning suggested Friday, April 23, 34 AD (Julian).[65][66] In 1990 astronomer Bradley E. Schaefer computed Friday, April 3, 33 AD, (Julian) as the date of the Crucifixion.[67] In 1991 John Pratt stated that Newton's method was sound, but that it introduced a minor error at the end. According to Pratt, Newton selected April 23 because he assumed a "postponement rule" from the modern Hebrew calendar, which was not in use at the time—a fact only demonstrated more than a century after Newton. Pratt considered April 3, 33 AD, to be correct.[65] Using the different approach of a lunar eclipse model, Humphreys and Waddington in 1983 arrived at the conclusion that April 3, 33 AD, was the date of the Crucifixion.[68][69][70]
Life and teachings in the New Testament
Although the four canonical gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, are the main sources for the biography of Jesus' life, other parts of the New Testament, such as the Pauline epistles, which were probably written decades before them, also include references to key episodes in his life, such as the Last Supper in 1 Corinthians 11:23–26.[71][72][73] The Acts of the Apostles (10:37–38 and 19:4) refers to the early ministry of Jesus and its anticipation by John the Baptist.[74][75] Acts 1:1–11 says more about the Ascension of Jesus (also mentioned in 1 Timothy 3:16) than the canonical gospels do.[76]
Canonical gospel accounts
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Despite being the main sources for the Jesus' life, not everything contained in the New Testament gospels is considered to be historically reliable.[9] Elements whose historical authenticity are disputed include the two accounts of the Nativity, as well as the Resurrection and certain details about the Crucifixion.[77][78][79] Views on the gospels range from their being inerrant descriptions of the life of Jesus[80] to their providing no historical information about his life.[81]
Three of the four canonical gospels, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, are known as the Synoptic Gospels, from the Greek σύν (syn "together") and ὄψις (opsis "view").[82] According to the majority viewpoint, the Synoptic Gospels are the primary sources of historical information about Jesus.[83][84] They are very similar in content, narrative arrangement, language and paragraph structure.[82] Scholars generally agree that it is impossible to find any direct literary relationship between the Synoptic Gospels and the Gospel of John.[85]
In general, the authors of the New Testament showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age.[86] As stated in John 21:25, the gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in the life of Jesus.[87] The accounts were primarily written as theological documents in the context of early Christianity, with timelines as a secondary consideration.[88] One manifestation of the gospels as theological documents rather than historical chronicles is that they devote about one third of their text to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem, referred to as Passion Week.[89] Although the gospels do not provide enough details to satisfy the demands of modern historians regarding exact dates, it is possible to draw from them a general picture of the life story of Jesus.[86][88][90]
The gospel accounts differ in the ordering of the parables and miracles they record. While the flow of the some events, such as the Baptism, Transfiguration and Crucifixion of Jesus, and his interactions with the Apostles, are shared among the Synoptic Gospels, events such as the Transfiguration do not appear in John's Gospel, which also differs on other matters, such as the Cleansing of the Temple.[86][88][91][92] Since the second century, attempts have been made to harmonize the gospel accounts into a single narrative, Tatian's Diatesseron perhaps being the first.[93]
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Life of Jesus according to the canonical gospels |
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The gospels include a number of discourses by Jesus on specific occasions, such as the Sermon on the Mount and the Farewell Discourse. They also include over 30 parables, spread throughout the narrative, often with themes that relate to the sermons.[94] John 14:10 stresses the importance of the words of Jesus and attributes them to the authority of God the Father.[95][96] The gospel descriptions of Jesus' miracles are often accompanied by records of his teachings.[97][98]
Genealogy and Nativity
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Accounts of the genealogy and Nativity of Jesus appear in the New Testament only in the Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of Matthew. Outside the New Testament, documents exist that are more or less contemporary with Jesus and the gospels, but few shed any light on biographical details of his life, and these two gospel accounts remain the main sources of information on the genealogy and Nativity.[90]
Matthew begins his gospel with the genealogy of Jesus before giving an account of Jesus' birth. He traces Jesus' ancestry to Abraham through David. Luke 3:22 discusses the genealogy after describing the Baptism of Jesus, when the voice from Heaven addresses Jesus and identifies him as the Son of God. Luke traces Jesus' ancestry through Adam to God.[99]
The Nativity is a prominent element in the Gospel of Luke, comprising over 10 percent of the text and being three times as long as Matthew's Nativity text.[100] Luke's account emphasizes events before the birth of Jesus and centers on Mary, while Matthew's mostly covers those after the birth and centers on Joseph.[101][102][103] Both accounts state that Jesus was born to Joseph and Mary, his betrothed, in Bethlehem, and both support the doctrine of the virgin birth, according to which Jesus was miraculously conceived by the Holy Spirit in Mary's womb when she was still a virgin.[104][105]
In Luke 1:31–38 Mary learns from the angel Gabriel that she will conceive and bear a child called Jesus through the action of the Holy Spirit.[102][104] Following his betrothal to Mary, Joseph is troubled (Matthew 1:19–20) because Mary is pregnant, but in the first of Joseph's three dreams an angel assures him not be afraid to take Mary as his wife, because her child was conceived by the Holy Spirit.[106] When Mary is due to give birth, she and Joseph travel from Nazareth to Joseph's ancestral home in Bethlehem to register in the census of Quirinius. There Mary gives birth to Jesus, and as they have found no room in the inn, she places the newborn in a manger (Luke 2:1–7). An angel visits some shepherds and sends them to adore the child (Luke 2:22). After presenting Jesus at the Temple, Joseph and Mary return home to Nazareth.[102][104] In Matthew 1:1–12, wise men or Magi from the East bring gifts to the young Jesus as the King of the Jews. Herod hears of Jesus' birth and, wanting him killed, orders the murder of young male children in Bethlehem. But an angel warns Joseph in his second dream, and the family flees to Egypt, later to return and settle in Nazareth.[106][107][108]
Early life and profession
Jesus' childhood home is identified in the gospels of Luke and Matthew as the town of Nazareth in Galilee. Mary's husband Joseph appears in descriptions of Jesus' childhood, but no mention is made of him thereafter.[109] The New Testament books of Matthew, Mark, and Galatians mention Jesus' brothers and sisters, but the Greek word adelphos in these verses has also been translated as "kinsman", rather than the more usual "brother".[110]
Mark 6:3 calls Jesus a tekton (Greek τέκτων), usually understood to mean a carpenter, and Matthew 13:55 says he was the son of a tekton.[111] Although traditionally translated as "carpenter", tekton is a rather general word (from the same root that leads to "technical" and "technology") that could cover makers of objects in various materials, even builders.[112][113] Beyond the New Testament accounts, the association of Jesus with woodworking is a constant in the traditions of the first and second centuries. Justin Martyr (d. ca. 165) wrote that Jesus made yokes and ploughs.[114]
Baptism and temptation
Gospel accounts of the Baptism of Jesus are always preceded by information about John the Baptist and his ministry.[91][116][117] They show John preaching penance and repentance for the remission of sins and encouraging the giving of alms to the poor (Luke 3:11) as he baptized people in the area of the River Jordan around Perea at about the time when Jesus began his ministry. The Gospel of John (1:28) initially specifies "Bethany beyond the Jordan", that is Bethabara in Perea, and later John 3:23 refers to further baptisms in Ænon "because there was much water there".[118][119]
The four gospels are not the only references to John's ministry around the River Jordan. In Acts 10:37–38, Peter refers to the ministry of Jesus as coming "after the baptism which John preached".[75] In the Antiquities of the Jews (18.5.2), Josephus also wrote about John the Baptist and his eventual death in Perea.[120][121]
In the gospels, John had been foretelling (Luke 3:16) the arrival of someone "mightier than I",[122][123] and the apostle Paul also refers to this (Acts 19:4).[74] In Matthew 3:14, on meeting Jesus, the Baptist says, "I need to be baptized by you", but Jesus persuades John to baptize him nonetheless.[124] After he does so and Jesus emerges from the water, the sky opens and a voice from Heaven states, "This is my beloved Son with whom I am well pleased." The Holy Spirit then descends upon Jesus as a dove (Matthew 3:13–17, Mark 1:9–11, Luke 3:21–23).[122][123][124] In John 1:29–33, rather than a direct narrative, the Baptist bears witness to the episode.[123][125] This is one of two events described in the gospels where a voice from Heaven calls Jesus "Son", the other being the Transfiguration.[126][127]
After the baptism, the Synoptic Gospels describe the Temptation of Christ, in which Jesus resisted temptations from the devil while fasting for forty days and nights in the Judaean Desert. The Gospel of John omits the Temptation and proceeds directly to the first encounter between Jesus and two of his future disciples (John 1:35–37): on the day after the Baptism, the Baptist sees Jesus again and calls him the Lamb of God; two disciples of John the Baptist hear this and follow Jesus.[125][128][129][130]
Ministry
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The gospels present John the Baptist's ministry as the precursor of that of Jesus. Starting with his Baptism, Jesus begins his ministry in the countryside of Judea, near the River Jordan, when he is "about 30 years of age" (Luke 3:23). He then travels, preaches and performs miracles, eventually completing his ministry with the Last Supper with his disciples (Matthew 26, Luke 22) in Jerusalem.[131][55][117][91]
Scholars divide the ministry of Jesus into several stages. The "Early Galilean ministry" begins when Jesus returns to Galilee from the Judaean Desert after rebuffing the temptation of Satan.[132] In this early period Jesus preaches around Galilee, and in Matthew 4:18–20, his first disciples, who will eventually form the core of the early Church, encounter him and begin to travel with him.[117][133] This period includes the Sermon on the Mount, one of Jesus' major discourses.[133][134]
The "Major Galilean ministry" which begins in Matthew 8 describes activities up to the death of John the Baptist. It includes Calming the storm and a number of other miracles and parables.[135][136] The "Final Galilean ministry" includes the miracles of Feeding the 5000 and Walking on water, both in Matthew 14.[137][138] This period ends with the Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration.[139][140][141][142]
As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, in the "Later Perean ministry", he returns to the area where he was baptized, about one-third the way down from the Sea of Galilee along the Jordan (John 10:40–42).[143][144] The "Final ministry in Jerusalem" is sometimes called the "Passion Week" and begins with the Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday.[145] In the Synoptic Gospels, during that week Jesus drives the money changers from the Temple and Judas bargains to betray him. However, John's Gospel places the Temple incident during the early part of Jesus' ministry, and scholars differ on whether these are one or two separate incidents.[146] This period culminates in the Last Supper and the Farewell Discourse. The accounts of the ministry of Jesus generally end with the Last Supper.[91][145][147]
Teachings and preachings
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Commentaries often discuss the teachings of Jesus in terms of his "words and works".[148][97] The words include a number of sermons, as well as parables that appear throughout the narrative of the Synoptic Gospels (the Gospel of John includes no parables). The works include the miracles and other acts performed during Jesus' ministry.[97] Although the canonical gospels are the major source of the teachings of Jesus, the Pauline epistles, which were probably written decades before the gospels, provide some of the earliest written accounts.[71]
The New Testament presents the teachings of Jesus not merely as his own preaching, but as divine revelation. John the Baptist, for example, states in John 3:34: "For the one whom God has sent speaks the words of God, for God gives the Spirit without limit"; and in John 7:16 Jesus says, "My teaching is not my own. It comes from the one who sent me." He asserts the same thing in John 14:10: "Don't you believe that I am in the Father, and that the Father is in me? The words I say to you I do not speak on my own authority. Rather, it is the Father, living in me, who is doing his work."[96][149] In Matthew 11:27 Jesus claims divine knowledge, stating: "No one knows the Son except the Father and no one knows the Father except the Son".[150][151]
In the gospels, the approximately thirty parables form about one third of Jesus' recorded teachings.[94][95] The parables appear within longer sermons and at other places in the narrative.[152] They are seemingly simple and memorable stories, often with imagery, and they usually relate the physical world to the spiritual.[153][154]
The gospel episodes that include descriptions of the miracles of Jesus also often include teachings, and the miracles themselves involve an element of teaching.[97][98] Many of the miracles in the gospels teach the importance of faith. For instance in the cleansing of ten lepers and the raising of Jairus' daughter, the beneficiaries are told that their healing was due to their faith.[155][156]
Proclamation as Christ and Transfiguration
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At about the middle of each of the three Synoptic Gospels, two related episodes mark a turning point in the narrative: the Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration of Jesus.[139][140] They take place near Caesarea Philippi, just north of the Sea of Galilee, at the beginning of the final journey to Jerusalem that ends in the Passion and Resurrection of Jesus.[157] These events mark the beginnings of the gradual disclosure of the identity of Jesus to his disciples and his prediction of his own suffering and death.[126][127][139][140][157]
Peter's Confession begins as a dialogue between Jesus and his disciples in Matthew 16:13, Mark 8:27 and Luke 9:18. Jesus asks his disciples, "who do you say that I am?" Simon Peter answers, "You are the Christ, the Son of the living God."[157][158][159] In Matthew 16:17 Jesus replies, "Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-jonah: for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father who is in heaven." With this blessing, Jesus affirms that the titles Peter ascribes to him are divinely revealed, thus unequivocally declaring himself to be both Christ and the Son of God.[160][161]
The account of the Transfiguration appears in Matthew 17:1–9, Mark 9:2–8, and Luke 9:28–36.[126][127][139] Jesus takes Peter and two other apostles up an unnamed mountain, where he "was transfigured before them; his face shining as the sun, and his garments became white as the light".[162] A bright cloud appears around them, and a voice from the cloud says, "This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased; listen to him".[126] The Transfiguration reaffirms that Jesus is the Son of God (as in his Baptism), and the command "listen to him" identifies him as God's messenger and mouthpiece.[163]
Final week: betrayal, arrest, trial, and death
The description of the last week of the life of Jesus (often called Passion Week) occupies about one third of the narrative in the canonical gospels,[89] starting with a description of the Triumphal entry into Jerusalem and ending with his Crucifixion.[91][145] The last week in Jerusalem is the conclusion of the journey through Perea and Judea that Jesus began in Galilee.[145] Just before the entry into Jerusalem, the Gospel of John includes the Raising of Lazarus, which increases the tension between Jesus and the authorities.[145]
Final entry into Jerusalem
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In the four canonical gospels, Jesus' final entry into Jerusalem takes place at the beginning of the last week of his life, a few days before the Last Supper, marking the beginning of the Passion narrative.[164] The day of entry into Jerusalem is identified by Mark and John as Sunday and by Matthew as Monday; Luke does not identify the day.[165][166][167] After leaving Bethany Jesus rides a young donkey into Jerusalem. People along the way lay cloaks and small branches of trees in front of him and sing part of Psalm 118:25–26.[165][168][166][167] The cheering crowds greeting Jesus as he enters Jerusalem add to the tension between him and the authorities.[145]
In the three Synoptic Gospels, entry into Jerusalem is followed by the Cleansing of the Temple, in which Jesus expels the money changers from the Temple, accusing them of turning it into a den of thieves through their commercial activities. This is the only account of Jesus using physical force in any of the gospels.[150][146][169] John 2:13–16 includes a similar narrative much earlier, and scholars debate whether the passage refers to the same episode.[150][146][169] The Synoptics include a number of well-known parables and sermons, such as the Widow's mite and the Second Coming Prophecy, during the week that follows.[166][167]
The Synoptics record conflicts that took place between Jesus and the Jewish elders during Passion Week in episodes such as the Authority of Jesus questioned and the Woes of the Pharisees, in which Jesus criticizes their hypocrisy.[166][167] Judas Iscariot, one of the twelve apostles, approaches the Jewish elders and strikes a bargain with them, in which he undertakes to betray Jesus and hand him over to them for a reward of thirty silver coins.[170][171][172]
Last Supper
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The Last Supper is the final meal that Jesus shares with his twelve apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is mentioned in all four canonical gospels, and Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians (11:23–26), which was probably written before the gospels, also refers to it.[72][73][173][174]
During the meal, Jesus predicts that one of his apostles will betray him.[175] Despite each Apostle's assertion that he would not betray him, Jesus reiterates that the betrayer would be one of those present. Matthew 26:23–25 and John 13:26–27 specifically identify Judas as the traitor.[72][73][175]
In Matthew 26:26–29, Mark 14:22–25, Luke 22:19–20 Jesus takes bread, breaks it and gives it to the disciples, saying, "This is my body which is given for you". He then has them all drink from a cup, saying, "this is my blood of the covenant".[72][176] Although the Gospel of John does not include a description of the bread-and-wine ritual during the Last Supper, most scholars agree that John 6:58–59 (the Bread of Life Discourse) has a eucharistic character and resonates with the "words of institution" used in the Synoptic Gospels and in the Pauline writings on the Last Supper.[177]
In all four gospels, Jesus predicts that Peter will deny knowledge of him three times before the rooster crows the next morning.[178][179] In Luke and John, the prediction is made during the Supper (Luke 22:34, John 22:34). In Matthew and Mark, the prediction is made after the Supper, and he also predicts that all his disciples will desert him (Matthew 26:31–34, Mark 14:27–30).[180]
The Gospel of John provides the only account of Jesus washing his disciples' feet before the meal.[107] John also includes a long sermon by Jesus, preparing his disciples (now without Judas) for his departure. Chapters 14–17 of the Gospel of John are known as the Farewell Discourse and are a significant source of Christological content.[181][182]
Agony in the Garden, betrayal and arrest
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After the Last Supper, Jesus, accompanied by his disciples, takes a walk to pray. Matthew and Mark identify the place as the garden of Gethsemane, while Luke identifies it as the Mount of Olives.[183][180] Judas appears in the garden, accompanied by a crowd that includes the Jewish priests and elders and people with weapons, and kisses Jesus to identify him to the crowd, which then arrests Jesus.[180][184]
In an attempt to stop them, one of Jesus' disciples uses a sword to cut off the ear a man in the crowd.[180][184] Luke states that Jesus miraculously heals the wound, and John and Matthew report that Jesus criticizes the violent act, enjoining his disciples not to resist his arrest. In Matthew 26:52 Jesus says, "all they that take the sword shall perish with the sword".[180][184]
After the arrest of Jesus, Jesus' disciples go into hiding, and Peter, when questioned, thrice denies knowing Jesus.[180] After the third denial, he hears the rooster crow and recalls the prediction as Jesus turns to look at him. Peter then weeps bitterly.[178]
Trials by the Sanhedrin, Herod and Pilate
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After his arrest, Jesus is taken to the Sanhedrin, a Jewish judicial body.[186] The gospel accounts differ on the details of the trials.[187] In Matthew 26:57, Mark 14:53 and Luke 22:54, Jesus is taken to the high priest's house, where he is mocked and beaten that night. Early next morning, the chief priests and scribes lead Jesus away into their council.[184][188][189][190] John 18:12–14 states that Jesus is first taken to Annas, the father-in-law of Caiaphas, and then to Caiaphas.[184][188][189] All four gospels report the Denial of Peter, where Peter denies knowing Jesus three times before the rooster crows, as predicted by Jesus.[188][191]
During the trials Jesus speaks very little, mounts no defense and gives very infrequent and indirect answers to the questions of the priests, prompting an officer to slap him. In Matthew 26:62 Jesus' unresponsiveness leads the high priest to ask him, "Answerest thou nothing?"[184][188][189][192] In Mark 14:61 the high priest then asks Jesus, "Art thou the Christ, the Son of the Blessed?", and Jesus replies "I am", and then predicts the coming of the Son of Man.[84] This provokes the high priest to tear his own robe in anger and to accuse Jesus of blasphemy. In Matthew and Luke, Jesus' answer is less direct.[193][84] In Matthew 26:64 Jesus responds "Thou hast said", and in Luke 22:70 he says, "Ye say that I am".[194][195]
Taking Jesus to Pilate's Court, the Jewish elders ask Roman governor Pontius Pilate to judge and condemn Jesus, accusing him of claiming to be the King of the Jews.[189] The use of the word "king" is central to the discussion between Jesus and Pilate. In John 18:36 Jesus states, "My kingdom is not of this world", but he does not directly deny being the King of the Jews.[196][197] In Luke 23:7–15 Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean, thus coming under the jurisdiction of Herod Antipas.[198][199] [200] Pilate sends Jesus to Herod to be tried,[201] but Jesus says almost nothing in response to Herod's questions. Herod and his soldiers mock Jesus, put a gorgeous robe on him to make him look like a king, and send him back to Pilate.[198] Pilate then calls together the Jewish elders and says that he has "found no fault in this man".[201]
As a Passover custom, Pilate allows one prisoner chosen by the crowd to be released. He gives the crowd a choice between Jesus and a murderer called Barabbas. Persuaded by the elders (Matthew 27:20), the mob chooses to release Barabbas and crucify Jesus.[202] Pilate writes a sign that reads "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" (abbreviated as INRI in depictions) to be affixed to the cross of Jesus.[203] He then scourges Jesus and send him to be cricified. The soldiers mock Jesus as the King of Jews by clothing him in a purple robe (which signifies royal status) and placing a Crown of Thorns on his head. They beat and taunt him before taking him to Calvary,[204] also called Golgotha, for crucifixion.[184][205][189]
Crucifixion and burial
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Jesus' crucifixion is described in all four canonical gospels. After the trials, Jesus makes his way to Calvary by a route known traditionally as the Via Dolorosa. The three Synoptic Gospels indicate that Simon of Cyrene assists him, having been compelled by the Romans to do so.[206][207] In Luke 23:27–28 Jesus tells the women in the multitude of people following him not to weep for him but for themselves and their children.[206] At Calvary Jesus is offered wine mixed with gall, a concoction usually offered as a painkiller. Matthew and Mark state that he refused it.[206][207]
The soldiers then crucify Jesus and cast lots for his clothes. Above Jesus' head on the cross is Pilate's inscription "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews", and the soldiers and passers-by mock him about it. Jesus is crucified between two convicted thieves, one of whom rebukes Jesus, while the other defends him.[206][208]
The Roman soldiers break the two thieves' legs (a procedure designed to hasten death in a crucifixion), but they do not break those of Jesus, as he is already dead. One soldier, traditionally identified as Saint Longinus, pierces Jesus' side with a lance, and water flows out.[208] In Mark 15:39, impressed by the events, the Roman centurion affirms that Jesus was the Son of God.[206][207][209][210]
On the same day, Joseph of Arimathea, with Pilate's permission and with Nicodemus' help, removes Jesus' body from the cross, wraps him in a clean cloth and buries him in a new rock-hewn tomb.[206] In Matthew 27:62–66, on the following day the Jews ask Pilate for the tomb to be sealed with a stone and placed under guard to ensure the body will remain there.[206][211]
Resurrection and ascension
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New Testament accounts of Jesus' resurrection state that on the first day of the week after the crucifixion (typically interpreted as a Sunday), his tomb is discovered to be empty and his followers encounter him risen from the dead.[76][212][213] His followers arrive at the tomb early in the morning and meet either one or two beings (men or angels) dressed in bright robes.[76][213] Mark 16:9 and John 20:15 indicate that Jesus appears to Mary Magdalene first, and Luke 16:9 states that she is one of the myrrhbearers.[76][213]
After the discovery of the empty tomb, Jesus makes a series of appearances to the disciples.[76] These include the Doubting Thomas episode and the appearance on the road to Emmaus, where Jesus meets two disciples. The catch of 153 fish is a miracle by the Sea of Galilee, after which Jesus encourages Peter to serve his followers.[76][213]
Before he ascends into heaven, Jesus commissions his disciples to spread his teachings to all the nations of the world. Luke 24:51 states that Jesus is then "carried up into heaven". The Ascension account is elaborated in Acts 1:1–11 and mentioned 1 Timothy 3:16. In Acts, forty days after the Resurrection, as the disciples look on, "he was taken up; and a cloud received him out of their sight". 1 Peter 3:22 describes Jesus as being on "the right hand of God, having gone into heaven".[76]
The Acts of the Apostles describe several appearances by Jesus after his Ascension. Acts 7:55 describes a vision experienced by Stephen just before his death.[214] On the road to Damascus, Apostle Paul is converted to Christianity after seeing a blinding light and hearing a voice saying, "I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting".[215][216] In Acts 9:10–18, Ananias of Damascus is instructed to heal Paul. It is the last conversation with Jesus reported in the Bible until the Book of Revelation,[215][216] in which a man named John receives a revelation from Jesus concerning the end times.[217]
Historical views
Since the 18th century, three separate scholarly quests for the historical Jesus have taken place, each with distinct characteristics and based on different research criteria, which were often developed during the quest that applied them.[218][219] The second quest, which started in 1953, reached a plateau in the 1970s, and by 1992 the term "third quest" had been coined to characterize the new research approaches.[220] In the third quest, research on the historical Jesus entered a new phase. According to Gerd Theissen and Dagmar Winter, the third quest gave greater emphasis to the methods of mainstream historical scholarship.[221]
Donald Akenson has argued that, with very few exceptions, the historians of Yeshua have not followed sound historical practices. He has stated that there is an unhealthy reliance on consensus for propositions which should be based on primary sources or rigorous interpretation. He also holds that some of the criteria being used are faulty.[222]
Existence
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In antiquity, those who opposed Christianity never denied the existence of Jesus, and neither pagans nor Jews questioned it.[86][225] While theological differences existed among early Christians as to the nature of Jesus—views included monophysitism, miaphysitism, Docetism and Nestorianism, for example—these were debates about Christian theology, not about the historical existence of Jesus.[226][227]
The Christ myth theory, which questions the existence of Jesus, appeared in the 18th and 19th centuries and was debated during the 20th century. Some of its supporters contend that Jesus is a myth invented by early Christians.[228] Supporters of the theory point to the lack of any known written references to Jesus during his lifetime, and to the relative scarcity of non-Christian references to him in the 1st century, to challenge the veracity of the existing accounts of him.[229] Beginning in the 20th century, scholars such as G. A. Wells, Robert M. Price and Thomas Brodie have presented various arguments to support the Christ myth theory.[230]
In response to the argument that the lack of the contemporary references implies that Jesus did not exist, Robert E. Van Voorst stated that, "as every good student of history knows", such arguments from silence are "specially perilous".[231] Arguments from silence generally fail unless a fact is known to the author and is important enough and relevant enough to be mentioned in the context of a document.[232][233] Bart D. Ehrman states that the view that Jesus had an immense impact on the society of his day, so that one might have expected contemporary accounts of his deeds, is completely unsound; he adds that although Jesus had a large impact on future generations, his impact on the society of his time was "practically nil".[234] Van Voorst states that Roman sources came to consider Jesus only when the growth of Christianity came to be seen as a threat to Rome, and given that they viewed Christianity as a "superstition" they had little interest in its origins.[235] Timothy Barnes states that at the turn of the first century, there was only a low level of interest in and awareness of Christians within the Roman Empire, resulting in the lack of any discernible mention of them by Roman authors.[236]
Ehrman states that arguments based on the lack of physical or archeological evidence of Jesus and of any writings from him are poor, as there is no such evidence of "nearly anyone who lived in the first century".[237][238] Teresa Okure states that the existence of historical figures is established by the analysis of later references to them, rather than by contemporary relics and remnants.[239] A number of scholars caution against the use of such arguments from ignorance and consider them generally inconclusive or fallacious because of their reliance on "negative evidence".[240][241][242] Douglas Walton states that arguments from ignorance can only lead to sound conclusions in cases where we can assume that our "knowledge-base is complete".[243]
Non-Christian sources used to establish the historical existence of Jesus include the works of first-century Roman historians Josephus and Tacitus.[223][244] Josephus scholar Louis H. Feldman has stated that "few have doubted the genuineness" of Josephus' reference to Jesus in Book 20 of the Antiquities of the Jews, and it is disputed only by a small number of scholars.[224][245] Ehrman states that a wide range of sources, including Josephus and Tacitus, attest to Jesus' existence and crucifixion by the Romans.[246]
Today, virtually all scholars of antiquity agree that Jesus existed and regard events such as his baptism and his crucifixion as historical.[247][8][248][249][250] Van Voorst states that the idea of the non-historicity of Jesus has always been controversial and has consistently failed to convince scholars of many disciplines.[251] Richard A. Burridge states: "I have to say that I do not know any respectable critical scholar who says [that Jesus did not exist] any more."[252] Van Voorst and (separately) Michael Grant state that biblical scholars and classical historians now regard theories of the non-existence of Jesus as effectively refuted.[251][253][254]
Archaeology
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Despite the lack of specific archaeological remains directly attributed to Jesus, 21st-century scholars have become increasingly interested in using archaeology to seek greater understanding of the socio-economic and political background to Jesus' life.[255][256][257] James Charlesworth states that few modern scholars would now ignore the archaeological discoveries that cast light on life in Galilee and Judea during the time of Jesus.[256] Jonathan Reed states that chief contribution of archaeology to the study of the historical Jesus is the reconstruction of his social world.[258]
Historicity of events
Most modern scholars consider Jesus' baptism and crucifixion to be definite historical facts. James Dunn states that they "command almost universal assent" and "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus.[247] Ehrman states that crucifixion on the orders of Pilate is the most certain fact about Jesus.[259] John Dominic Crossan, Craig Blomberg and John P. Meier all aver the indisputability of Jesus' crucifixion.[260][261][262] Meier adduces the criterion of embarrassment, saying that Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader.[262] He further states that a number of other criteria, such as the criterion of criterion of multiple attestation (confirmation by more than one source), the criterion of coherence (that it fits with other historical elements) and the criterion of rejection (that it is not disputed by ancient sources), help confirm the Crucifixion as a historical event.[263]
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Although most scholars agree on the historicity of the Crucifixion, they differ on the reason and context for it. For an example, both E.P. Sanders and Paula Fredriksen contend that Jesus' prediction of the Crucifixion is a Christian myth, a view opposed by B. F. Meyer, J. C. O'Neill, and N. T. Wright, who consider the the gospel accounts of Jesus' expectation of his death to be genuine.[264]
Approaches to the historical reconstruction of the life of Jesus have varied from the "maximalist" approaches of the 19th century, in which the gospel accounts were accepted in their entirety, to the "minimalist" approaches of the early 20th century, where hardly anything about Jesus was accepted as historical.[265][266] In the 1950s, as the second quest for the historical Jesus gathered pace, the minimalist approaches faded away, and in the 21st century, minimalists such as Robert M. Price are a very small minority, whose views have hardly any academic following.[267][268] Although no totally maximalist view is accepted as historical, many scholars since the 1980s have held that, beyond the few facts considered to be historically certain, certain other elements of Jesus' life are "historically probable".[266][269][270] Modern scholarly research on the historical Jesus thus focuses on identifying the most probable elements.[271][272]
Portraits of Jesus
Modern research on the historical Jesus has not led to a unified picture of the historical figure, partly because of the variety of academic traditions represented by the scholars.[221] Ben Witherington states that "there are now as many portraits of the historical Jesus as there are scholarly painters".[273] Thus, the portraits of Jesus constructed in these quests often differ from each other, and from the image portrayed in the gospels.[274][275] The attributes described in the portraits overlap, however, and scholars who differ on some attributes often agree on others.[276][277][278]
The mainstream profiles in the third quest may be grouped according to whether they portray Jesus primarily as apocalyptic prophet, charismatic healer, Cynic philosopher, Jewish Messiah or egalitarian prophet of social change.[276][277] Each of these types has a number of variants, and some scholars reject the basic elements of some portraits.[279] In spite of the disagreements, Levine states that there is "a consensus of sorts" on the basic outline of Jesus' life, in that most scholars agree that Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist, debated with Jewish authorities on the subject of God, performed some healings, taught in parables, gathered followers, and was crucified on Pilate's orders.[37]
Language, ethnicity and appearance
Jesus grew up in Galilee and much of his ministry took place there.[38] The languages spoken in Galilee and Judea during the first century AD include Aramaic, Hebrew and Greek, with Aramaic predominant.[282][283] Most scholars agree that in the early first century, Aramaic was the mother tongue of virtually all women in Galilee and Judea.[284] Most scholars support the theory that Jesus spoke Aramaic and may also have spoken Hebrew and Greek.[282][283][285] Dunn states that there is "substantial consensus" that Jesus gave most of his teachings in Aramaic.[286]
In a review of the state of modern scholarship, Levine writes that the entire question of ethnicity is fraught with difficulty, and that "beyond recognizing that 'Jesus was Jewish', rarely does the scholarship address what being 'Jewish' means".[287] In the New Testament, written in Koine Greek, Jesus was referred to as Ioudaios (Judean) on three occasions, although he did not refer to himself as such. He was so described: by the Magi in Matthew 2, who referred to Jesus as βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων (basileus ton ioudaion; king of the Jews); by the Samaritan woman at the well in John 4 when Jesus was travelling out of Judea; and (in all four gospels) during the Passion, by the Romans, who also used the phrase basileus ton ioudaion.[288]
The New Testament gives no description of the physical appearance of Jesus before his death—it is generally indifferent to racial appearances and does not refer to the features of the people it mentions.[289][290][291] The Synoptic Gospels include accounts of the Transfiguration, during which Jesus was glorified, with "his face shining as the sun", but they do not give details of his everyday appearance.[127][139] The Book of Revelation describes the features of a glorified Jesus in a vision (1:13–16), but the vision refers to Jesus in heavenly form, after his death and resurrection.[292][293]
By the 19th century, theories that Jesus was of Aryan descent, and in particular European, had been developed. These theories later appealed to those (such as Nazi theologians) who rejected Jesus' Jewish ethnicity,[291][294] but they have not gained scholarly acceptance.[291][295] By the 20th century, theories had also been proposed that Jesus was of black African descent, some of them based on the claim that Mary his mother was a descendant of black Jews.[296]
Religious perspectives
Apart from his own disciples and followers, the Jews of Jesus' day generally rejected him as the Messiah, as do Jews today. Christian theologians, ecumenical councils, reformers and others have written extensively about Jesus over the centuries. Christian sects and schisms have often been defined or characterized by their descriptions of Jesus. Meanwhile, Manichaeans, Gnostics, Muslims, Baha'is, and others have found prominent places for Jesus in their religions.[297]
Christian views
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Although Christian views of Jesus vary, it is possible to summarize the key beliefs shared among major denominations, as stated in their catechetical or confessional texts.[298] Christian views of Jesus are derived from various sources, but especially from the canonical gospels and from New Testament letters such as the Pauline epistles and the Johannine writings. These documents outline the key beliefs held by Christians about Jesus, including his divinity, humanity and earthly life, and that he is the Christ and the Son of God. In the New Testament, Jesus indicates that he is the Son of God by calling God his father.[160] Despite the many shared beliefs, not all Christian denominations agree on all doctrines, and both major and minor differences on teachings and beliefs have persisted throughout Christianity for centuries.[299]
Christians consider Jesus the Christ and believe that through his death and resurrection, humans can be reconciled with God and are thereby offered salvation and the promise of eternal life.[300] Recalling the words of John the Baptist on the day after Jesus' baptism, these doctrines sometimes refer to to Jesus as the Lamb of God, who was crucified to fulfil his role as the servant of God.[301] Jesus is thus seen as the new and last Adam, whose obedience contrasts with Adam's disobedience.[302]
Most Christians believe that Jesus was both human and the Son of God. While there has been theological debate over the nature of Jesus, Trinitarian Christians generally believe that Jesus is the Logos, God's incarnation and God the Son, both fully divine and fully human. However, the doctrine of the Trinity is not universally accepted among Christians.[303]
Christians worship not only Jesus himself, but also his name. Devotions to the Holy Name of Jesus go back to the earliest days of Christianity.[304][305] These devotions and feasts exist both in Eastern and Western Christianity.[305]
Jewish views
Judaism rejects the idea of Jesus being God, or a mediator to God, or part of a Trinity. Judaism holds that Jesus is not the Messiah, arguing that he neither fulfilled the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh nor embodied the personal qualifications of the Messiah. According to Jewish tradition, there were no prophets after Malachi, who delivered his prophesies around 420 BC.[306]
The New Testament states that Jesus was criticized by the Jewish authorities of his time. The Pharisees and scribes criticized Jesus and his disciples for not observing the Mosaic Law, for not washing their hands before eating (Mark 7:1–23, Matthew 15:1–20), and for gathering grain on the Sabbath (Mark 2:23–3:6).
The Talmud includes stories that some consider to be accounts of Jesus. In one such story, Yeshu ha-nozri ("Jesus the Christian"), a lewd apostate, is executed by the Jewish high court for spreading idolatry and practicing magic.[307] There is a wide spectrum of opinion among scholars concerning these stories.[308] Some, such as Johann Maier, consider that only the accounts with the name Yeshu (יֵשׁוּ) refer to the Christian Jesus, and that these are late redactions. Others, such as Joseph Klausner, suggest that accounts related to Jesus in the Talmud may contain traces of the historical Jesus. However, the majority of contemporary historians consider that this material provides no information on the historical Jesus.[309]
Judaic criticism of Jesus is long-standing. The Mishneh Torah, a late 12th century work of Jewish law written by Moses Maimonides, states that Jesus is a "stumbling block" who makes "the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God".[310] This remains the consensus, even among more liberal Jews. Jonathan Waxman of the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism writes that Jews who believe Jesus is the Messiah have "crossed the line out of the Jewish community".[311] Reform Judaism holds that "For us in the Jewish community anyone who claims that Jesus is their savior is no longer a Jew and is an apostate".[312]
Islamic views
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In Islam, Jesus (Arabic: عيسى ʿĪsā) is considered to be a Messenger of God and the Masih (Messiah) who was sent to guide the Children of Israel (banī isrā'īl) with a new scripture, the Injīl or Gospel.[313] Belief in Jesus (and all other messengers of God) is requirement for being a Muslim. The Quran mentions Jesus by name 25 times—more often than Muhammad.[314][315]
The Quran does not mention Joseph but does describe the Annunciation to Mary (Arabic: Maryam) by an angel that she is to give birth to Jesus while remaining a virgin. It calls the virgin birth a miracle that occurred by the will of Allah.[316][317][318] The Quran (21:91 and 66:12) states that God breathed His Spirit into Mary while she was chaste.[316][317][318][319] In Islam, Jesus is called the "Spirit of God" because he was born through the action of the Spirit, but that belief does not include the doctrine of his pre-existence, as it does in Christianity.[316]
Jesus has numerous titles in Islamic literature, the most common being al-Masīḥ (the Messiah). He is sometimes called the "Seal of the Israelite Prophets", because Muslims believe that Jesus was the last prophet sent by God to guide the Children of Israel. Jesus is seen in Islam as a precursor to Muhammad and is believed by Muslims to have foretold Muhammad's coming.[320][321] To aid in his ministry to the Jewish people, Jesus was given the ability to perform miracles, by permission of God rather than by his own power.
The Quran emphasizes that Jesus was a mortal human who, like all other prophets, had been divinely chosen to spread God's message. Islamic texts emphasize a strict notion of monotheism (tawhīd) and forbid the association of partners with God, which would be idolatry (shirk). Like all prophets in Islam, Jesus is considered to have been a Muslim, as he preached that his followers should adopt the "straight path", as commanded by God.[320][322]
Islam considers that Jesus was neither the incarnation nor the son of God. It denies that he was crucified, that he rose from the dead, and that he atoned for the sins of mankind. The Quran says that Jesus himself never claimed any of these things, and it predicts that at the Last Judgment, Jesus will deny having ever claimed divinity, and that God will vindicate him (Quran 5:116). According to Muslim traditions, Jesus was not crucified but was physically raised into the heavens by God. Muslims believe that Jesus will return to earth near the day of judgment to restore justice.[320][322]
Ahmadiyya views
The Ahmadiyya Movement believes that Jesus was a mortal man who survived his crucifixion and died a natural death at the age of 120 in Kashmir.[323][324][325][326] According to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the 19th-century founder of the Ahmadiyya Movement, Jesus did not die on the cross but fell into a coma and later regained consciousness after being nursed back to health with aloe and myrrh.[323][324][325] Mainstream Muslims reject this and various other Ahmadi beliefs, and some (for exmaple, in Pakistan) consider Ahmadis not to be Muslim.[327]
Ahmadis believe that after his apparent death and resurrection, Jesus fled Judea and went east to further teach the gospel, and that he is buried at Roza Bal in Kashmir.[326][328] Ahmadis reject the notion that Jesus traveled to India before his crucifixion.[329] Mirza Ghulam Ahmad declared himself to be the second coming of Jesus for Christians and the Mujaddid (renewer of faith) for Muslims.[324][325]
Bahá'í views
Bahá'í teachings consider Jesus to be a manifestation of God, a Bahá'í concept that refers to what are commonly called prophets[330]—intermediaries between God and humanity, serving as messengers and reflecting God's qualities and attributes.[21] The Bahá'í concept also emphasizes the simultaneous qualities of humanity and divinity.[21] This concept is most similar to the Christian concept of incarnation.[330] In Bahá'í thought, Jesus was a perfect incarnation of God's attributes, but Bahá'í teachings reject the idea that divinity was contained with a single human body, stating that, on the contrary, God transcends physical reality.[330]
Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, wrote that since each manifestation of God has the same divine attributes, they can be seen as the spiritual "return" of all previous Manifestations of God, and the appearance of each new manifestation of God inaugurates a religion that supersedes the former ones, a concept known as progressive revelation.[21] Through this process Bahá'ís believe God's plan unfolds gradually as mankind matures, and that some of the manifestations arrive in specific fulfilment of the missions of previous ones. Thus, Bahá'ís believe that Bahá'u'lláh is the promised return of Christ.[331]
Bahá'í teachings confirm many, but not all, aspects of the historical Jesus as portrayed in the gospels. Bahá'ís believe in the Virgin Birth[332] and in the Crucifixion, but see the Resurrection and the miracles of Jesus as symbolic.[333] Bahá'í thought also accepts Jesus as the Son of God.[333]
Buddhist views
Buddhist views of Jesus vary. Although Jesus is not a theological figure in Buddhism, some Buddhists, including Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama,[334] regard him as a bodhisattva who dedicated his life to the welfare of people. It is recorded in 101 Zen Stories that the 14th-century Zen master Gasan Jōseki, on hearing some of the sayings of Jesus in the gospels, remarked that he was "an enlightened man", and "not far from Buddhahood".[335] On the other hand, Buddhist scholars such as Masao Abe and D. T. Suzuki have stated that the centrality of the crucifixion of Jesus to the Christian view of his life is totally irreconcilable with the foundations of Buddhism.[336][337][338]
In a letter to his daughter Indira Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru wrote, "All over Central Asia, in Kashmir and Ladakh and Tibet and even farther north, there is a strong belief that Jesus or Isa traveled about there."[339] The theory that an adult Jesus traveled to India first appeared in 1887, and it gave rise to other stories, but the author later confessed to fabricating it.[340] Van Voorst states that modern scholarship has "almost unanimously agreed" that claims that Jesus traveled to Tibet, Kashmir or India contain "nothing of value".[341] Marcus Borg states that suggestions that an adult Jesus traveled to Egypt or India and came into contact with Buddhism are "without historical foundation".[39] Although modern parallels have been drawn between the teachings of Jesus and Buddha, these comparisons emerged after missionary contacts in the 19th century, and there is no historically reliable evidence of contacts between Buddhism and Jesus during his life.[342] Crossan states that none of the theories presented to fill the 15–18 year gap between the early life of Jesus and the start of his ministry have been supported by modern scholarship.[40]
Other views
Manichaeism (which once counted Augustine of Hippo as a follower, although he later opposed it) accepted Jesus as a prophet, along with Gautama Buddha and Zoroaster.[343][344] More recently, the New Age movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus. The New Age movement teaches that Christhood is something that all may attain. Theosophists, from whom many New Age teachings originated, refer to Jesus as the Master Jesus and believe that Christ, after various incarnations, occupied the body of Jesus.[345] U.S. President Thomas Jefferson, a deist, created the Jefferson Bible, an early but incomplete gospel harmony that included only Jesus' ethical teachings, because he did not believe in Jesus' divinity, nor any other supernatural aspects of the Bible.[346][347]
Critics of Jesus included Celsus in the second century and Porphyry, who wrote a 15-volume attack on Christianity as a whole.[348][349] In the 19th century, Nietzsche was highly critical of Jesus, whose teachings he considered to be "anti-nature" in their treatment of topics such as sexuality.[350] In the 20th century Bertrand Russell was also critical of Jesus, stating in Why I Am Not a Christian that Jesus was "not so wise as some other people have been, and He was certainly not superlatively wise".[351]
Depictions
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Despite the lack of biblical references or historical records, during the last two millennia a wide range of depictions of Jesus have appeared, often influenced by cultural settings, political circumstances and theological contexts.[280][281][290] As in other Christian art, the earliest depictions date to the late second or early third century, and surviving images are found especially in the Catacombs of Rome.[352]
The Byzantine Iconoclasm acted as a barrier to developments in the East, but by the ninth century, art was permitted again.[280] The Transfiguration was a major theme in the East, and every Eastern Orthodox monk who had trained in icon painting had to prove his craft by painting an icon depicting it.[353] The Renaissance brought forth a number of artists who focused on depictions of Jesus; Fra Angelico and others followed Giotto in the systematic development of uncluttered images.[280] The Protestant Reformation brought a revival of aniconism in Christianity, but total prohibition was atypical, and Protestant objections to images have tended to reduce since the 16th century. Although large images are generally avoided, few Protestants now object to book illustrations depicting Jesus.[354][355] On the other hand, the use of depictions of Jesus is advocated by the leaders of denominations such as Anglicans and Catholics[356][357][358] and is a key element of the Eastern Orthodox tradition.[359][360]
Relics associated with Jesus
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Turin_plasch.jpg)
A number of relics have been claimed to be associated with Jesus, however their authenticity is disputed. The 16th-century Catholic theologian Erasmus wrote sarcastically about the proliferation of relics and the number of buildings that could have been constructed from the wood claimed to be from the cross used in the Crucifixion.[361] Similarly, while experts debate whether Jesus was crucified with three nails or with four, at least thirty holy nails continue to be venerated as relics across Europe.[362]
Some relics, such as purported remnants of the Crown of Thorns, receive only a modest number of pilgrims, others such as the Shroud of Turin (which is associated with an approved Catholic devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus) receive millions, recently including Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI.[363]
See also
- Views on Jesus
- Related lists
Notes
- ^ Rahner states that the consensus among historians is c. 4 BC. Sanders supports c. 4 BC. Vermes supports c. 6/5 BC. Finegan supports c. 3/2 BC. Sanders refers to the general consensus, Vermes a common 'early' date, Finegan defends comprehensively the date according to early Christian traditions.
- Rahner 2004, p. 732
- Sanders 1993, pp. 10–11
- Vermes 2006, p. 22
- Finegan, Jack (1998). Handbook of Biblical Chronology, rev. ed. Hendrickson Publishers. p. 319. ISBN 978-1-56563-143-4.
If we remember the prevailing tradition represented by the majority of the early Christian scholars dated the birth of Jesus in 3/2 B.C., and if we accept the time of Herod's death as between the [lunar] eclipse of Jan 9/10 and the Passover of April 8 in the year 1 B.C., then we will probably date the nativity of Jesus in 3/2 B.C., perhaps in mid-January in 2 B.C.
- ^ Brown 1977, p. 513.
- ^ a b Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, p. 114; Barnett 2002, pp. 19–21; Maier 1989, pp. 113–129; Sanders 1993, p. 54; Vermes 2004, p. 371.
- ^ James Dunn states that the baptism and crucifixion of Jesus "command almost universal assent" and "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus (Dunn 2003, p. 339).
- Bart Ehrman states that the crucifixion of Jesus on the orders of Pontius Pilate is the most certain element about him (Ehrman 1999, p. 101 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFEhrman1999 (help)).
- John Dominic Crossan states that the crucifixion of Jesus is as certain as any historical fact can be (Crossan & Watts 1999, p. 96).
- Eddy and Boyd state that it is now "firmly established" that there is non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus (Eddy & Boyd 2007, p. 173).
- ^ Theissen & Merz 1998: "Our conclusion must be that Jesus came from Nazareth."
- ^ Placher, William C. (1988). Readings in the History of Christian Theology. pp. 52–53. ISBN 0-664-24057-7. The first sentence of the Gospel of Mark (Mk 1:1) includes Son of God and the term is also part of the Nicene Creed, the most widely used Christian creed.
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: CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ^ Brown 1977, p. 9
- Strobel, Lee (2007). The case for the real Jesus: a journalist investigates current attacks on the identity of Christ. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-310-24061-7.
- ^ a b In a 2011 review of the state of modern scholarship, Bart Ehrman (who is a secular agnostic) wrote: "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees" (Ehrman 2011, p. 285).
- Richard A. Burridge states: "There are those who argue that Jesus is a figment of the Church's imagination, that there never was a Jesus at all. I have to say that I do not know any respectable critical scholar who says that any more" (Burridge & Gould 2004, p. 34).
- Robert M. Price (an atheist who denies existence) agrees that this perspective runs against the views of the majority of scholars (Price 2009, p. 61).
- James D. G. Dunn states that the theories of non-existence of Jesus are "a thoroughly dead thesis" (Sykes 2007, pp. 35–36).
- Michael Grant (a classicist) states that "In recent years, 'no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non historicity of Jesus' or at any rate very few, and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, indeed very abundant, evidence to the contrary" (Grant 1977, p. 200).
- Robert E. Van Voorst states that biblical scholars and classical historians regard theories of non-existence of Jesus as effectively refuted (Van Voorst 2000, p. 16).
- ^ a b Evans, Craig (1993). "Life-of-Jesus Research and the Eclipse of Mythology" (PDF). Theological Studies. 54: 5.
- Talbert, Charles H. (1977). What Is a Gospel? The Genre of Canonical Gospels. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. p. 42.
- Sanders 1993, p. 3
- Powell 1998, pp. 168–173
- ^ Brown 1994, p. 964; Carson, Moo & Morris, pp. 50–56 ; 1992 & Crossan, pp. xi–xiii ; 1993 & Fredriksen, pp. 6–7, 105–110, 232–234, 266 ; 1999 & Maier, pp. 1, 99, 121, 171 ; 1991 & Meier, pp. 68, 146, 199, 278, 386 ; 1991 .
- ^ Dunn 2003, p. 339; Meier 1994, pp. 12–13; Vermes 1973, p. 37; Wright 1998, pp. 32, 83, 100–102, 222; Witherington 1998, pp. 12–20.
- ^ Fredriksen, pp. 6–7, 105–110, 232–234, 266 ; Theissen, pp. 1–16 ; Dunn, pp. 47–49 ; Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles, pp. 117–125 ; 2000 1998 ; 2003 2009 .
- ^ For further information, see the Portraits of Jesus section.
- ^ a b Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, p. 114; Maier 1989, pp. 113–129; Van Voorst, pp. 39–42 ; Niswonger 1992, pp. 121–124; 3y2000 .
- ^ The methodology for constructing the historical portraits has been criticized by Akenson (Akenson 1998, pp. 539–555).
- ^ Grudem 1994, pp. 568–603.
- ^ a b Kevin Knight (ed.). "The dogma of the Trinity". Catholic Encyclopedia. New Advent. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
- ^ Friedmann, Robert (1953). "Antitrinitarianism". Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
- ^ Houlden 2006, p. 184; Düzgün 2004, p. 20.
- ^ Norman, Asher (2007). Twenty-six reasons why Jews don't believe in Jesus. Nanuet, NY: Feldheim Publishers. pp. 16–18, 89–96. ISBN 978-0-9771937-0-7.
- ^ a b c d Cole, Juan (1982). "The Concept of Manifestation in the Bahá'í Writings". Bahá'í Studies. monograph 9: 1–38.
- ^ "Saint Paul, the Apostle". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
- ^ Briggs, Brown Driver (1996). Hebrew and English Lexicon. Hendrickson Publishers. ISBN 1-56563-206-0.
- ^ Liddell & Scott 1889, p. 824.
- ^ "The Name of Jesus Christ". Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2013-04-22.
- ^ Perkins, Larry (2010). "What's in a Name – Proper Names in Greek Exodus". Journal for the Study of Judaism. 41 (4–5): 454. doi:10.1163/157006310X503630.
- ^ Hurtado, Larry W. (2005). Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity. p. 392. ISBN 978-0-8028-3167-5.
- Green 1997, p. 88
- Garland, David E. (1999). Reading Matthew: a literary and theological commentary. p. 23. ISBN 1-57312-274-2.
- ^ France, by R. T. (2007). The Gospel of Matthew. p. 78. ISBN 0-8028-2501-X.
- Davies & Allison 2004, p. 155
- ^ Hare, Douglas (2009). Matthew. p. 11. ISBN 0-664-23433-X.
- ^ Eddy & Boyd 2007, p. 129.
- ^ Davies & Allison 2004, p. 209.
- ^ Vine 1940, pp. 274–275.
- ^ Zanzig 2000, p. 314.
- ^ Ekstrand, Donald W. (2008). Christianity. pp. 147–150. ISBN 1-60477-929-2.
- ^ Pannenberg 1968, pp. 30–31
- Doninger 1999, p. 212
- Bultmann, Rudolf K. (2007). Theology of the New Testament. p. 80. ISBN 1-932792-93-7.
- ^ Maier 1989, pp. 113–129; Köstenberger & Kellum, p. 114 ; Quarles 2009 .
- ^ a b Levine 2006, p. 4: "There is a consensus of sorts on a basic outline of Jesus' life. Most scholars agree that Jesus was baptized by John, debated with fellow Jews on how best to live according to God's will, engaged in healings and exorcisms, taught in parables, gathered male and female followers in Galilee, went to Jerusalem, and was crucified by Roman soldiers during the governorship of Pontius Pilate" Cite error: The named reference "FOOTNOTELevine20064" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ a b Green, Joel B.; McKnight, Scot; Marshall, I. Howard (1992). Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. InterVarsity Press. p. 442.
- ^ a b Borg, Marcus J. (2006). "The Spirit-Filled Experience of Jesus". In Dunn, James D. G.; McKnight, Scot (eds.). The Historical Jesus in Recent Research. p. 303. ISBN 1-57506-100-7.
- ^ a b Crossan & Watts 1999, pp. 28–29.
- ^ a b Evans, Craig (2006). "Josephus on John the Baptist". In Levine, Amy-Jill; Allison, Dale C.; Crossan, John D. (eds.). The Historical Jesus in Context. Princeton Univ Press. pp. 55–58. ISBN 978-0-691-00992-6.
- Gillman, Florence M. (2003). Herodias: at home in that fox's den. pp. 25–30. ISBN 0-8146-5108-9.
- ^ Hoehner, Harold W. (1983). Herod Antipas. p. 131. ISBN 0-310-42251-5: In his analysis of Herod Antipas's life, Harold Hoehner estimates that John the Baptist's imprisonment by Herod probably occurred around AD 30-31.
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: CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ^ Houlden 2003, pp. 508–509; Carter 2003, pp. 44–45.
- ^ Maier 1989, pp. 113–129; Niswonger 1992, pp. 121–124.
- ^ Niswonger 1992, pp. 121–124; Rahner 2004, pp. 730–731; Niswonger 1992, pp. 121–124.
- ^ Vermes 2006, p. 22.
- ^ Köstenberger & Kellum, p. 140 ; Quarles 2009, pp. 113–129 ; Maier 1989.
- ^ a b c Scarola, Jack V. (1998). "A Chronology of the nativity Era". In Summers, Ray; Vardaman, Jerry (eds.). Chronos, kairos, Christos 2. pp. 61–81. ISBN 0-86554-582-0.
- Freedman 2000, p. 249
- ^ Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles, p. 140 ; 2009 & Maier, pp. 113–129 ; 1989 .
- ^ a b Novak, Ralph M. (2001). Christianity and the Roman Empire: background texts. pp. 302–303. ISBN 1-56338-347-0.
- ^ Dunn 2003, p. 324.
- ^ Carson, Moo & Morris 1992, pp. 54, 56; Grant 1977, p. 71; Meier 1991, p. 214; Sanders 1993, pp. 10–11; Witherington 1998, No. 3:12–20 are some of the historians and Biblical scholars who place the birth and death of Jesus within this range.
- ^ a b Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, p. 140.
- ^ MacArthur, John (2009). Luke 1–5: New Testament Commentary. p. 201. ISBN 978-0-8024-0871-6.
- ^ a b Maier 1989, pp. 113–129.
- ^ Anderson, Paul N. (2011). The Riddles of the Fourth Gospel: An Introduction to John. p. 200. ISBN 0-8006-0427-X: Anderson dates the temple incident at "around 26–27 AD".
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: CS1 maint: postscript (link)- Knoblet, Jerry (2005). Herod the Great. p. 184. ISBN 0-7618-3087-1: Jerry Knoblet estimates the date at around 27 AD.
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: CS1 maint: postscript (link) - Freedman states that Jesus began his ministry "ca 28 AD" at "ca age 31" (Freedman 2000, p. 249).
- Paul L. Maier specifically states that he considers the Temple visit date in John at "around 29 AD", using various factors that he summarizes in a chronology table. Maier's table considers 28 AD to be roughly the 32nd birthday of Jesus and 5 BC to be the year of birth of Jesus (Maier 1989, pp. 113–129).
- Köstenberger, Kellum and Quarles make the same statement as Maier, namely that the 32nd birthday of Jesus was around 28 AD when his ministry began (Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, p. 114).
- Fortna, Robert T.; Thatcher, Tom (2001). Jesus in Johannine tradition. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-664-22219-2: In their book, Robert Fortna and Thatcher estimate the date at around 28 AD.
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: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
- Knoblet, Jerry (2005). Herod the Great. p. 184. ISBN 0-7618-3087-1: Jerry Knoblet estimates the date at around 27 AD.
- ^ Freedman 2000, p. 249.
- ^ Hoehner, Harold W (1978). Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ. Zondervan. pp. 29–37. ISBN 0-310-26211-9.
- Luke states that John's ministry began in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, when Pontius Pilate was the Roman governor of Judea, and Herod Antipas was tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip was tetrarch of the region of Iturea and Trachonitis, and Lysanias was tetrarch of Abilene, during the high priesthood of Annas and Caiaphas.
- ^ Theissen & Merz 1998, pp. 81–83.
- ^ Green 1997, p. 168.
- ^ Carter 2003, pp. 44–45.
- ^ a b Barnett 2002, pp. 19–21.
- ^ a b Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, pp. 77–79.
- ^ Riesner, Rainer (1997). Paul's early period: chronology, mission strategy, theology. pp. 19–27. ISBN 978-0-8028-4166-7.
- ^ a b Pratt, J. P. (1991). "Newton's Date for the Crucifixion". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 32 (3): 301–304. Bibcode:1991QJRAS..32..301P.
- ^ Newton, Issac (1793). . .
Thus there remain only the years 33 and 34 to be considered; and the year 33 I exclude by this argument ...
- ^ Schaefer, B. E. (1990). "Lunar Visibility and the Crucifixion". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 31 (1): 53–67. Bibcode:1990QJRAS..31...53S.
- ^ Humphreys, Colin; Waddington, W. G. (1983). "Dating the Crucifixion". Nature. 306: 743–746.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help) - ^ Humphreys, Colin J.; Waddington, W. G. (1985). "The Date of the Crucifixion". Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation. 37. Archived from the original on 2013-02-18.
{{cite journal}}
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suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Humphreys, Colin (2011). The Mystery of the Last Supper. Cambridge University Press. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0: However, note that Humphreys places the Last Supper on a Wednesday.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ^ a b Blomberg 2009, pp. 441–442.
- ^ a b c d Fahlbusch, Erwin (2005). The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 4. pp. 52–56. ISBN 978-0-8028-2416-5.
- ^ a b c Evans 2003, pp. 465–477.
- ^ a b Bruce, Frederick F. (1988). The Book of the Acts. p. 362. ISBN 0-8028-2505-2.
- ^ a b Rausch 2003, p. 77.
- ^ a b c d e f g Evans 2003, pp. 521–530.
- ^ Crossan & Watts 1999, p. 108.
- ^ Dunn 2003, pp. 779–781.
- ^ Funk, Robert W. (1998). The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. San Francisco: Harper. pp. 449–495.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
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suggested) (help) - ^ Grudem 1995, pp. 90–91.
- ^ Howard M. Teeple (1970). "The Oral Tradition That Never Existed". Journal of Biblical Literature. 89 (1): 56–68. doi:10.2307/3263638.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help) - ^ a b Haffner, Paul (2008). New Testament Theology. p. 135. ISBN 88-902268-0-3.
- Scroggie, W. Graham (1995). A Guide to the Gospels. p. 128. ISBN 0-8254-3744-X.
- "synoptic". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- ^ Sanders 1993, p. 73.
- ^ a b c "Jesus Christ". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2013-04-13.
The Synoptic Gospels, then, are the primary sources for knowledge of the historical Jesus.
- ^ Moloney, Francis J.; Harrington, Daniel J. (1998). The Gospel of John. p. 3. ISBN 0-8146-5806-7.
- ^ a b c d Rahner 2004, pp. 730–731.
- ^ O'Collins, Gerald (2009). Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus. pp. 1–3. ISBN 0-19-955787-X.
- ^ a b c Wiarda, Timothy (2010). Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, People, and Theology. pp. 75–78. ISBN 0-8054-4843-8.
- ^ a b Turner, David L. (2008). Matthew. p. 613. ISBN 0-8010-2684-9.
- ^ a b Sanders 1993, p. 3.
- ^ a b c d e Blomberg 2009, pp. 224–229.
- ^ Cox & Easley 2007, pp. 18–20.
- ^ Cavadini, John C. (1999). Augustine through the ages: an encyclopedia. p. 132. ISBN 0-8028-3843-X.
- Aland, Kurt (1982). Synopsis of the Four Gospels. pp. 1–10. ISBN 0-8267-0500-6.
- Orchard, John B. (1983). Synopsis of the Four Gospels. pp. 2–7. ISBN 0-567-09331-X.
- Cox & Easley 2007, p. 3
- ^ a b Lockyer, Herbert (1988). All the Parables of the Bible. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-310-28111-5.
- ^ a b Pentecost, J. Dwight (1998). The parables of Jesus: lessons in life from the Master Teacher. p. 10. ISBN 0-8254-3458-0.
- ^ a b Osborn, Eric F. (1993). The emergence of Christian theology. p. 98. ISBN 0-521-43078-X.
- ^ a b c d Pentecost, J. Dwight (1981). The words and works of Jesus Christ. p. 212. ISBN 978-0-310-30940-6.
- ^ a b Twelftree, Graham H. Jesus the miracle worker: a historical & theological study. p. 95. ISBN 0-8308-1596-1.
- ^ Brown, Raymond E. (1978). Mary in the New Testament. p. 163. ISBN 0-8091-2168-9.
- ^ Boring & Craddock 2004, p. 177.
- ^ Mills & Bullard 1998, p. 556.
- ^ a b c Marsh, Clive; Moyise, Steve (2006). Jesus and the Gospels. New York: Clark International. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-567-04073-2.
- ^ Morris 1992, p. 26.
- ^ a b c Jeffrey, David L. (1992). A Dictionary of biblical tradition in English literature. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 538–540. ISBN 978-0-85244-224-1.
- ^ Cox & Easley 2007, pp. 30–37
- Brownrigg, Ronald (2002). Who's Who in the New Testament. London: Taylor & Francis. pp. 96–100. ISBN 978-0-415-26036-7.
- Kelly, Joseph F. (2008). The Birth of Jesus According to the Gospels. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press. pp. 41–49. ISBN 978-0-8146-2948-2.
- ^ a b Talbert 2010, pp. 29–30.
- ^ a b Harris, Stephen L. (1985). Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. pp. 272–85.
- ^ Schnackenburg 2002, pp. 9–11.
- ^ Perrotta, Louise B. (2000). Saint Joseph: His Life and His Role in the Church Today. pp. 21, 110–112. ISBN 0-87973-573-2.
- ^ Bromiley 1988, p. 551.
- ^ Vine 1940, p. 170.
- ^ Liddell & Scott 1889, p. 797.
- ^ Dickson, John (2008). Jesus: A Short Life. Kregel Publications. pp. 68–69. ISBN 978-0-8254-7802-4.
- ^ Fiensy, David (2007). Jesus the Galilean. Gorgias Press. p. 74. ISBN 1-59333-313-7.
- ^ Ross, Leslie (1996). Medieval art: a topical dictionary. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-313-29329-0.
- ^ Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, pp. 141–143.
- ^ a b c McGrath, Alister E. (2006). Christianity: an introduction. pp. 16–22. ISBN 978-1-4051-0901-7.
- ^ Nichols, Lorna D. (2009). Big Picture of the Bible – New Testament. p. 12. ISBN 1-57921-928-4.
- ^ Sloyan, Gerard S. (1987). John. p. 11. ISBN 0-8042-3125-7.
- ^ Freedman 2000, p. 583.
- ^ Kimball, Kirk (2002). Behold the Man: The Real Life of the Historical Jesus. p. 654. ISBN 978-1-58112-633-4.
- ^ a b Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John W. (2003). Eerdmans commentary on the Bible. p. 1010. ISBN 0-8028-3711-5.
- ^ a b c Zanzig 2000, p. 118.
- ^ a b Majerník, Ponessa & Manhardt 2005, pp. 27–31.
- ^ a b Brown 1988, pp. 25–27.
- ^ a b c d Lee 2005, pp. 21–30.
- ^ a b c d Harding, Mark; Nobbs, Alanna (2010). The Content and the Setting of the Gospel Tradition. pp. 281–282. ISBN 978-0-8028-3318-1.
- ^ Boring & Craddock 2004, pp. 292–293.
- ^ Niswonger 1992, pp. 143–146.
- ^ Crowther, Duane S. (1999). Jesus of Nazareth. p. 77. ISBN 0-88290-656-9.
- Redford 2007, p. 92
- Baker, Robert A.; Landers, John M. (2005). A Summary of Christian History. pp. 6–7. ISBN 0-8054-3288-4.
- Phillips, J. (2004). The Disciple Whom Jesus Loved. pp. 121–123. ISBN 0-9702687-1-8.
- ^ Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, pp. 140–143.
- ^ Morris 1992, p. 71.
- ^ a b Redford 2007, pp. 117–130.
- ^ Vaught, Carl G. (2001). The Sermon on the mount: a theological investigation. pp. xi–xiv. ISBN 978-0-918954-76-3.
- ^ Ladd, George E. (1993). A theology of the New Testament. p. 324.
- ^ Redford 2007, pp. 143–160.
- ^ Cox & Easley 2007, p. 97–110.
- ^ Redford 2007, pp. 165–180.
- ^ a b c d e Barton, Stephen C. The Cambridge companion to the Gospels. pp. 132–133. ISBN 0-521-00261-3.
- ^ a b c Kingsbury, Jack D. (1983). The Christology of Mark's Gospel. pp. 91–95. ISBN 0-8006-2337-1.
- ^ Cox & Easley 2007, p. 121–135.
- ^ Redford 2007, pp. 189–207.
- ^ Mills & Bullard 1998, p. 929.
- ^ Cox & Easley 2007, p. 137
- Redford 2007, pp. 211–229
- Jensen, Richard A. (1998). Preaching Matthew's Gospel. pp. 25, 158. ISBN 978-0-7880-1221-1.
- Toussaint, Stanley D. (2005). Behold the King: A Study of Matthew. pp. 215–216. ISBN 0-8254-3845-4.
- ^ a b c d e f Cox & Easley 2007, pp. 155–170.
- ^ a b c Evans 2005, p. 49.
- ^ Redford 2007, pp. 257–274.
- ^ Walvoord & Zuck 1983, p. 346.
- ^ Köstenberger, Andreas J. (1998). The missions of Jesus and the disciples according to the Fourth Gospel. pp. 108–109. ISBN 0-8028-4255-0.
- ^ a b c Bromiley 1988, pp. 571–572.
- ^ Talbert 2010, p. 149.
- ^ Howick, E. Keith (2003). The Sermons of Jesus the Messiah. pp. 7–9. ISBN 978-1-886249-02-8.
- ^ Lisco, Friedrich G. (1850). The Parables of Jesus. Philadelphia: Daniels and Smith Publishers. pp. 9–11.
- ^ Oxenden, Ashton (1864). The parables of our Lord?. London: William Macintosh Publishers. p. 6.
- ^ Donahue & Harrington 2002, p. 182.
- ^ Lockyer, Herbert (1988). All the Miracles of the Bible. p. 235. ISBN 0-310-28101-6.
- ^ a b c Karris, Robert J. (1992). The Collegeville Bible Commentary: New Testament. pp. 885–886. ISBN 0-8146-2211-9.
- ^ Kingsbury, Jack D.; Powell, Mark A.; Bauer, David R. (1999). Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology. p. xvi. ISBN 0-664-25752-6.
- ^ Donahue & Harrington 2002, p. 336.
- ^ a b Yieh, John Y. H. (2004). One teacher: Jesus' teaching role in Matthew's gospel. pp. 240–241. ISBN 978-3-11-018151-7.
- ^ Pannenberg 1968, pp. 53–54.
- ^ Lee 2005, pp. 72–76.
- ^ Andreopoulos, Andreas (2005). Metamorphosis: the Transfiguration in Byzantine theology and iconography. pp. 47–49. ISBN 0-88141-295-3.
- ^ Majerník, Ponessa & Manhardt 2005, pp. 133–134; Boring & Craddock 2004, pp. 256–258; Evans 2003, pp. 381–395; Evans 2005, pp. 114–118.
- ^ a b Majerník, Ponessa & Manhardt 2005, pp. 133–134.
- ^ a b c d Boring & Craddock 2004, pp. 256–258.
- ^ a b c d Evans 2003, pp. 381–395.
- ^ MacArthur, John (2008). John 12–21. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-0-8024-0824-2.
- ^ a b Anderson, Paul N. (2006). The Fourth Gospel And the Quest for Jesus. p. 158. ISBN 0-567-04394-0.
- ^ Matthew 26:14–16, Mark 14:10–11, Luke 22:1–6
- ^ Lockyer, Herbert (1988). All the Apostles of the Bible. pp. 106–111. ISBN 0-310-28011-7.
- ^ Hayes, Doremus A. (2009). The Synoptic Gospels and the Book of Acts. p. 88. ISBN 1-115-87731-3.
- ^ Matthew 26:20, Mark 14:17, Luke 22:21–23 John 13:1
- ^ Cox & Easley 2007, pp. 180–191.
- ^ a b Cox & Easley 2007, p. 182.
- ^ Cross, F. L.; Livingstone, E. A. (2005). "Eucharist". Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3.
- ^ Freedman 2000, p. 792.
- ^ a b Perkins, Pheme (2000). Peter: apostle for the whole church. p. 85. ISBN 0-567-08743-3.
- ^ Lange, Johann P. (1865). The Gospel according to Matthew, Volume 1. New York: Charles Scribner Co. p. 499.
- ^ a b c d e f Walvoord & Zuck 1983, pp. 83–85.
- ^ O'Day, Gail R.; Hylen, Susan (2006). John. pp. 142–168. ISBN 978-0-664-25260-1.
- ^ Ridderbos, Herman (1997). The Gospel according to John. pp. 546–576. ISBN 978-0-8028-0453-2.
- ^ Majerník, Ponessa & Manhardt 2005, p. 169.
- ^ a b c d e f g Evans 2003, pp. 487–500.
- ^ Durham, John I. (2004). The Biblical Rembrandt. Mercer University Press. ISBN 978-0-86554-886-2.
- ^ Brown, Raymond E (1997). An Introduction to the New Testament. Doubleday. p. 146. ISBN 0-385-24767-2.
- ^ Bromiley 1988, pp. 1050–1052.
- ^ a b c d Blomberg 2009, pp. 396–400.
- ^ a b c d e Holman Concise Bible Dictionary. 2011. pp. 608–609. ISBN 0-8054-9548-7.
- ^ Matthew 27:1, Mark 15:1, 22:66
- ^ Bromiley 1988, p. 105.
- ^ Matthew 26:67 Mark 14:65 Luke 22:63–65 John 18:22
- ^ Evans 2003, p. 495.
- ^ Blomberg 2009, pp. 396–398.
- ^ O'Toole, Robert F. (2004). Luke's presentation of Jesus: a christology. p. 166. ISBN 88-7653-625-6.
- ^ Binz, Stephen J. (2004). The Names of Jesus. pp. 81–82. ISBN 1-58595-315-6.
- ^ Ironside, H. A. (2006). John. p. 454. ISBN 0-8254-2915-3.
- ^ a b Niswonger 1992, p. 172.
- ^ Majerník, Ponessa & Manhardt 2005, p. 181.
- ^ Patella, Michael (2005). The Gospel according to Luke. p. 16. ISBN 0-8146-2862-1.
- Card, Michael (2011). Luke: The Gospel of Amazement. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-8308-3835-6.
- ^ a b Carter 2003, pp. 120–121.
- ^ Blomberg 2009, pp. 400–401.
- ^ Brown 1988, p. 93.
- ^ Senior, Donald (1985). The Passion of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew. p. 124. ISBN 0-89453-460-2.
- ^ Blomberg 2009, p. 402.
- ^ a b c d e f g Evans 2003, pp. 509–520.
- ^ a b c Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, pp. 211–214.
- ^ a b Doninger, p. 271.
- ^ Martin, George (2005). The Gospel according to Mark. p. 440. ISBN 0-8294-1970-5.
- ^ Black, Allen (1995). Mark. p. 280. ISBN 0-89900-629-9.
- ^ Morris 1992, p. 727.
- ^ Matthew 28:1, Mark 16:9, Luke 24:1 and John 20:1
- ^ a b c d Cox & Easley 2007, pp. 216–226.
- ^ Frederick F., Bruce (1990). The Acts of the Apostles. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-8028-0966-7.
- ^ a b Wiersbe, Warren W. (2007). The Wiersbe Bible Commentary: The Complete New Testament. pp. 350–352. ISBN 978-0-7814-4539-9.
- ^ a b Johnson, Luke T.; Harrington, Daniel J. (1992). The Acts of the Apostles. pp. 164–167. ISBN 978-0-8146-5807-9.
- ^ Van den Biesen, Christian (1907). "Apocalypse". Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company.
- ^ Witherington 1997, pp. 9–13.
- ^ Powell 1998, pp. 19–23.
- ^ Van Voorst 2000, pp. 2–6
- Theissen & Dagmar 2002, pp. 1–6
- Porter, Stanley E. (2004). Criteria for Authenticity in Historical-Jesus Research. pp. 28–29. ISBN 0-567-04360-6.
- Anderson, Just & Thatcher 2007, p. 127
- ^ a b Theissen & Winter 2002, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Akenson, Donald (1998). Surpassing wonder: the invention of the Bible and the Talmuds. University of Chicago Press. pp. 539–555. Retrieved 2011-Jan-08.
... The point I shall argue below is that, the agreed evidentiary practices of the historians of Jesus, despite their best efforts, have not been those of sound historical practice ...
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(help) - ^ a b Blomberg 2009, pp. 431–436.
- ^ a b Josephus, Flavius; Whiston, William; Maier, Paul L. The new complete works of Josephus. pp. 662–663. ISBN 0-8254-2924-2.
- ^ Van Voorst 2000, p. 15.
- ^ Hindson, Ed; Caner, Ergun (2008). The Popular Encyclopedia of Apologetics: Surveying the Evidence for The Truth of Christianity. Harvest House Publishers. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-7369-2084-1.
- ^ Harvey, Susan A.; Hunter, David G. (2008). The Oxford handbook of early Christian studies. p. 378. ISBN 0-19-927156-9.
- ^ Theissen, Gerd (2003). A theory of primitive Christian religion. pp. 23–27. ISBN 0-334-02913-9.
- Habermas, Gary (1996). The historical Jesus: ancient evidence for the life of Christ. pp. 27–31, 47–51. ISBN 0-89900-732-5.
- Van Voorst 2000, pp. 7–8
- ^ Eddy & Boyd 2007, p. 162.
- ^ Brodie, Thomas L. (2012). Beyond the Quest for the Historical Jesus: Memoir of a Discovery. Sheffield Phoenix Press. ISBN 978-1-907534-58-4.
- Wells, G. A. (2007). "Jesus, Historicity of". In Flynn, Tom (ed.). The New Encyclopedia of Disbelief. Prometheus. p. 446.
- Stanton 2002, p. 143
- Eddy & Boyd 2007, pp. 24–27
- ^ Van Voorst 2000, p. 14: "As every good student of history knows, it is wrong to suppose that what is unmentioned or undetailed did not exist ... Arguments from silence about ancient times here about the supposed lack of biblical or extra-biblical references to Jesus are specially perilous."
- ^ Howell, Martha C.; Prevenier, Walter (2001). From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods. Cornell University Press. pp. 73–74. ISBN 0-8014-8560-6.
Another difficulty with argument from silence is that historians cannot assume that an observer of a particular fact would have automatically recorded that fact. Authors observe all kinds of events but only record those that seem important to them.
- ^ Chitnis, Krishnaji (2006). Research Methodology in History. p. 56. ISBN 81-7156-121-7.
- ^ Ehrman 1999, p. 56: "If we look at the historical record itself—and for the historian there is nothing else to look at—it appears that whatever his influence on subsequent generations, Jesus' impact on society in the first century was practically nil." sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFEhrman1999 (help)
- ^ Van Voorst 2000, p. 70.
- ^ Barnes, Timothy (1991). "Pagan Perceptions of Christianity". In Hazlett, Ian (ed.). Early Christianity: Origins and Evolution to Ad 600. p. 232. ISBN 0-687-11444-6.
Most inhabitants of the Roman Empire in A.D. 100 were either unaware of or uninterested in the Christians in their midst. Even in Rome, where there had certainly been Christians since the reign of Claudius, the varied epigrams of Martial and the satires of Juvenal make no identifiable allusion to the new religion, though both authors deride Jews and Judaism.
- ^ "Inventing Jesus: An Interview with Bart Ehrman". Religion Dispatches.
- ^ Ehrman, Bart (2012). Did Jesus Exist?. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-06-220460-8.
- ^ Teresa, Okure (2011). "Historical Jesus Research in Global Cultural Context". In Holmen, Tom; Porter, Stanley E. (eds.). Handbook for the Study of the Historical Jesus. pp. 953–954. ISBN 90-04-16372-7.
- ^ van Eemeren, Frans H.; Grootendorst, Rob (2003). A Systematic Theory of Argumentation. Cambridge University Press. p. 182. ISBN 0-521-53772-X.
- ^ Bunnin, Nicholas; Yu, Jiyuan (2009). The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy. p. 48. ISBN 1-4051-9112-0.
- ^ Walton, Douglas (2009). Arguments from Ignorance. Penn State Press. pp. 1–4. ISBN 0-271-01475-X.
- ^ Walton, Douglas (1992). "Nonfallacious arguments from ignorance". American Philosophical Quarterly. 29 (4): 381–387.
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ignored (help) - ^ Van Voorst 2000, pp. 39–53.
- ^ Feldman, Louis H. (1965). Josephus XX. p. 496. ISBN 0-674-99502-3.
- Van Voorst 2000, p. 83
- Josephus, Flavius; Maier, Paul L. (1995). Josephus, the essential works: a condensation of Jewish antiquities and The Jewish war. pp. 284–285. ISBN 978-0-8254-3260-6.
- ^ Ehrman, Bart D. (1999). The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. p. 248. ISBN 0-19-512639-4.
- ^ a b Dunn 2003, p. 339.
- ^ Brown 1994, p. 964
- Dunn 2003, p. 142
- ^ Stanton 2002, p. 145: "Today nearly all historians, whether Christians or not, accept that Jesus existed."
- ^ Bockmuehl 2001, pp. 123–124.
- ^ a b Van Voorst 2000, p. 16.
- ^ Burridge & Gould 2004, p. 34.
- ^ Grant 1977, p. 200. Michael Grant (a classicist) states that "In recent years, 'no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non historicity of Jesus' or at any rate very few, and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, indeed very abundant, evidence to the contrary."
- ^ Bockmuehl 2001, pp. 141–144.
- ^ Reed, Jonathan L. (2006). "Archaeological contributions to the study of Jesus and the Gospels". In Levine, Jill (ed.). The Historical Jesus in Context. Princeton University Press. pp. 40–47. ISBN 978-0-691-00992-6.
- Reed 2002, pp. xi–xii
- Craig A. Evans (Mar 26, 2012). The Archaeological Evidence For Jesus. The Huffington Post.
- ^ a b Charlesworth, James H. (2006). "Jesus Research and Archaeology: A New Perspective". In Charlesworth, James H. (ed.). Jesus and archaeology. pp. 11–15. ISBN 0-8028-4880-X.
- ^ Gowler, David B. (2007). What are they saying about the historical Jesus?. p. 102. ISBN 0-8091-4445-X.
- Evans 2012, p. 1
- ^ Reed 2002, p. 18.
- ^ Ehrman, Bart D. (2008). A Brief Introduction to the New Testament. p. 136. ISBN 0-19-536934-3.
- ^ Crossan, John D. (1995). Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography. HarperOne. p. 145. ISBN 0-06-061662-8. "That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus ... agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact."
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ^ Blomberg 2009, pp. 211–214.
- ^ a b Meier 2006, pp. 126–128.
- ^ Meier 2006, pp. 132–136.
- ^ Nicholson, Ernest (2004). A Century of Theological and Religious Studies in Britain, 1902–2002. pp. 125–126. ISBN 0-19-726305-4.
- ^ Keener, Craig S. (2012). The Historical Jesus of the Gospels. p. 163. ISBN 0802868886.
- ^ a b Chilton, Bruce; Evans, Craig A. (1998). Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research. p. 27. ISBN 9004111425.
- ^ Evans 2012, pp. 4–5: "No major historian or New Testament scholar follows Price."
- ^ Price acknowledges that his views are not supported by scholars at large (Price 2009, p. 61).
- ^ Borg, Marcus J. (1994). Jesus in Contemporary Scholarship. pp. 4–6. ISBN 1563380943.
- ^ Theissen & Winter 2002, pp. 142–143.
- ^ Anderson, Just & Thatcher 2007, p. 131.
- ^ Meier 2006, p. 124: "Since in the quest for the historical Jesus almost anything is possible, the function of the criteria is to pass from the merely possible to the really probable, to inspect various probabilities, and to decide which candidate is most probable. Ordinarily the criteria cannot hope to do more."
- ^ Witherington 1997, p. 77.
- ^ Theissen & Winter 2002, p. 5.
- ^ "Historical Jesus, Quest of the". Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. p. 775.
- ^ a b Mitchell, Margaret M.; Young, Frances M. (2006). The Cambridge History of Christianity, Volume 1. p. 23. ISBN 0-521-81239-9.
- ^ a b Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2009, pp. 124–125.
- ^ McClymond 2004, pp. 16–22.
- ^ Rausch 2003, p. 127.
- ^ a b c d Houlden 2006, pp. 63–99.
- ^ a b Erricker, Clive (1987). Teaching Christianity: a world religions approach. p. 44. ISBN 0-7188-2634-5.
- ^ a b Barr, James (1970). "Which language did Jesus speak". Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester. 53 (1): 9–29. Concerning the language spoken by Jesus, Barr states that Aramaic has the widest support among scholars.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ^ a b Porter, Stanley E. (1997). Handbook to exegesis of the New Testament. pp. 110–112. ISBN 90-04-09921-2.
- ^ Hamp, Douglas (2005). Discovering the language of Jesus. pp. 3–4. ISBN 1-59751-017-3.
- ^ Hoffmann, R. Joseph (1986). Jesus in history and myth. p. 98. ISBN 0-87975-332-3.
- ^ Dunn 2003, pp. 313–315.
- ^ Levine 2006, p. 10.
- ^ Elliott, John (2007). Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus. 5 (119).
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: Missing or empty|title=
(help) - ^ Jensen, Robin M. (2010). "Jesus in Christian art". In Burkett, Delbert (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to Jesus. pp. 477–502. ISBN 1-4051-9362-X.
- ^ a b Perkinson, Stephen (2009). The likeness of the king: a prehistory of portraiture in late medieval France. p. 30. ISBN 0-226-65879-1.
- ^ a b c Kidd, Colin (2006). The forging of races: race and scripture in the Protestant Atlantic world. pp. 48–51. ISBN 0-521-79324-6.
- ^ Pender, William C. (1998). Revelation. pp. 14–16. ISBN 0-664-22858-5.
- ^ MacArthur, John (1999). Revelation 1–11. pp. 37–39.
- ^ Heschel, Susannah (2008). The Aryan Jesus: Christian theologians and the Bible in Nazi Germany. p. 32. ISBN 0-691-12531-7.
- ^ Goguel, Maurice (1960). Jesus and the origins of Christianity. New York: Harper. p. 255.
- ^ Burkett, Delbert, ed. (2010). "The Black Christ". The Blackwell Companion to Jesus. pp. 410–420. ISBN 1-4051-9362-X.
- ^ Bockmuehl 2001, pp. 156–157
- Evans, C. Stephen (1996). The historical Christ and the Jesus of faith. Oxford University Press. p. v. ISBN 0-19-826397-X.
- Delbert, Burkett (2010). The Blackwell Companion to Jesus. p. 1. ISBN 1-4051-9362-X.
- ^ Jackson, Gregory L. (1993). Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant: a doctrinal comparison. pp. 11–17. ISBN 978-0-615-16635-3.
- McGuckin, John A. (2010). The Orthodox Church: An Introduction to Its History, Doctrine. pp. 6–7.
- Leith, John H. (1993). Basic Christian doctrine. pp. 1–2. ISBN 0-664-25192-7.
- ^ "Great Schism". Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press. 2005. ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3.
- ^ Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford University Press. p. 649.
- ^ Cullmann, Oscar (1959). The Christology of the New Testament. p. 79. ISBN 0-664-24351-7.
- Deme, Dániel (2004). The Christology of Anselm of Canterbury. pp. 199–200. ISBN 0-7546-3779-4.
- ^ Pannenberg, Wolfhart (2004). Systematic Theology, Volume 2. pp. 297–303. ISBN 0-567-08466-3.
- ^ Joyce, George (1912). "The Blessed Trinity". Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company.
- ^ Hunter, Sylvester (2010). Outlines of dogmatic theology, Volume 2. p. 443. ISBN 1-146-98633-5.
- ^ a b Houlden 2006, p. 426.
- ^ Simmons, Shraga, "Why Jews Do not Believe in Jesus", Retrieved 2007-04-15; "Why Jews Do not Believe in Jesus", Ohr Samayach – Ask the Rabbi, Retrieved 2007-04-15; "Why do not Jews believe that Jesus was the Messiah?", AskMoses.com, Retrieved 2007-04-15
- ^ Kessler, Edward; Wenborn, Neil (2005). A Dictionary of Jewish-Christian Relations. Cambridge University Press. p. 416. ISBN 978-1-139-44750-8.
- ^ Van Voorst 2000, p. 108.
- ^ Theissen, Gerd and Annette Merz. The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Fortress Press. 1998. translated from German (1996 edition). pp. 74–75
- ^ Maimonides, Moses (late 12th century). "Hilchot Melachim (Laws of Kings), 11:10-12". Mishneh Torah (in Hebrew). Retrieved 2007-04-15.
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(help) - ^ Waxman, Jonathan (2006). "Messianic Jews Are Not Jews". United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism. Archived from the original on 2008-01-09. Retrieved 2008-01-15.
Judaism has held that the Mashiach will come and usher in a new era; not that he will proclaim his arrival, die and wait centuries to finish his task. To continue to assert that Jesus was the Mashiach goes against the belief that the Mashiach will transform the world when he does come, not merely hint at a future transformation at some undefined time to come ... Judaism rejects the claim that a new covenant was created with Jesus and asserts instead that the chain of Tradition reaching back to Moshe continues to make valid claims on our lives, and serve as more than mere window dressing.
- ^ Jacob, Walter (1987). "68. Status of a Completed Jew in the Jewish Community". Contemporary American Reform responsa. CCAR Press. p. 110. ISBN 9780881230031.
- ^ Esposito, John L. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 158.
- ^ "Jesus, Son of Mary". Oxford Islamic Studies Online.
- ^ "Jesus in the Quran". islam101.com. Retrieved 2011-07-08.
- ^ a b c Burns, Robert A. (2011). Christianity, Islam, and the West. p. 32. ISBN 0-7618-5559-9.
- ^ a b Peters, F. E. (2005). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-691-12233-4.
- ^ a b Jestice, Phyllis G. (2004). Holy people of the world: a cross-cultural encyclopedia, Volume 1. pp. 558–559. ISBN 1-57607-355-6.
- ^ Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. VI. Brill. 1989. p. 629.
- ^ a b c "Isa". Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. IV. Brill. 1998.
- ^ Fasching, Darrell J.; deChant, Dell (2001). Comparative Religious Ethics: A Narrative Approach. p. 241. ISBN 978-0-631-20125-0.
- ^ a b McAuliffe, Jane D., ed. (2003). "Jesus". Encyclopedia of the Qur'an.
- ^ a b "Jesus in India". Alislam.org. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
- ^ a b c Stevens, Mark A. (2001). Merriam Webster's Collegiate Encyclopedia. p. 26. ISBN 0-87779-017-5.
- ^ a b c Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices (2 ed.). ABC-CLIO. p. 55. ISBN 978-1-59884-203-6.
- ^ a b O'Collins, Gerald; Kendall, Daniel (1998). Focus on Jesus. Mercer University Press. pp. 169–171. ISBN 0-85244-360-9.
- ^ Valentine, Simon (2008). Islam and the Ahmadiyya jamaʻat: history, belief, practice. Columbia University Press. pp. 19 and 59. ISBN 978-0-231-70094-8.
- ^ Rice, Edward (1978). Eastern Definitions: A Short Encyclopedia of Religions of the Orient. New York. p. 7. ISBN 0-385-08563-X.
- ^ Ahmad, Mirza G. (2003). Jesus in India. pp. iv–v. ISBN 978-1-853-72723-8.
- ^ a b c Stockman, Robert (1992). "Jesus Christ in the Bahá'í Writings". Bahá'í Studies Review. 2 (1). London: Association for Baha'i Studies English-Speaking Europe.
- ^ Smith, Peter (2008). An Introduction to the Baha'i Faith. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 128. ISBN 0-521-86251-5.
- ^ Lepard, Brian D. (2008). In the Glory of the Father: The Bahai Faith and Christianity. Bahai Publishing. p. 118. ISBN 1-931847-34-7.
- ^ a b Smith, Peter (2000). peace. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. p. 214. ISBN 1-85168-184-1.
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:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ Beverley, James A. (2011-06-11 accessdate= 2013-05-14). "Hollywood's Idol". Christianity Today.
So, you see, he reached a high state, either as a Bodhisattva, or an enlightened person, through Buddhist practice or something like that.
{{cite web}}
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(help); Missing pipe in:|date=
(help) - ^ "Story 16: Not far from Buddhahood". Zen Flesh Zen Bones: A Collection of Zen and Pre-Zen Writings. Tuttle Publishing. 1998. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-8048-3186-4. Retrieved 2011-12-09.
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suggested) (help) - ^ Abe, Masao; Heine, Steven (1995). Buddhism and Interfaith Dialogue. pp. 99–100.
- ^ Suzuki, Daisetz T. (2002). Mysticism, Christian and Buddhist. p. 113. ISBN 1-60506-132-8.
- ^ Houlden 2006, pp. 140–144.
- ^ Jawarharlal Nehru (1942). Glimpses of World History. New York: John Day Co. p. 84.
- ^ Ehrman says "one of the most widely disseminated modern forgeries is called The Unknown Life of Jesus Christ."( Ehrman 2011, p. 252)
- Schneemelcher, Wilhelm; Wilson, R. M. (1990). New Testament Apocrypha, Vol. 1: Gospels and Related Writings. p. 84. ISBN 066422721X.
...a particular book by Nicolas Notovich (Di Lucke im Leben Jesus 1894) ... shortly after the publication of the book, the reports of travel experiences were already unmasked as lies. The fantasies about Jesus in India were also soon recognized as invention... down to today, nobody has had a glimpse of the manuscripts with the alleged narratives about Jesus
- McGetchin, Douglas T. (2010). Indology, Indomania, and Orientalism. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 133. ISBN 083864208X.
Faced with this cross-examination, Notovich confessed to fabricating his evidence.
- Schneemelcher, Wilhelm; Wilson, R. M. (1990). New Testament Apocrypha, Vol. 1: Gospels and Related Writings. p. 84. ISBN 066422721X.
- ^ Van Voorst 2000, p. 17.
- ^ Houlden 2006, p. 140.
- ^ Bevan, A. A. (1930). James Hastings (ed.). Manichaeism. Vol. 8. London.
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:|work=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Brown, Peter R. L. (2000). Augustine of Hippo: A Biography. p. 43. ISBN 0-520-22757-3.
- ^ Bailey, Alice; Khul, Djwhal (2005) [1932]. A Treatise on Cosmic Fire. Lucis Publishing Company. p. 1193. ISBN 978-0-85330-117-2.
- ^ Reece, Erik (2005). "Jesus Without The Miracles – Thomas Jefferson's Bible and the Gospel of Thomas". Harper's Magazine. 311 (1867): 33–41. Archived from the original on 2011-12-09.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ^ Portier, William L. (1993). Tradition and incarnation: foundations of Christian theology. p. 218. ISBN 0-8091-3467-5.
- ^ Origen (1980). Chadwick, Henry (ed.). Contra Celsum. Cambridge University Press. p. xxviii.
- ^ Stevenson, J. (1987). Frend, W. H. C. (ed.). A New Eusebius: Documents illustrating the history of the Church to AD 337. p. 257. ISBN 0-281-04268-3.
- ^ Nietzsche, Friedrich (1895). Twilight of the Idols, Morality as Anti-nature.
- ^ Russell, Bertrand (2004). "Why I am not a Christian". Why I am Not a Christian: And Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects. Routledge Classics. p. 13.
- ^ Benedetto, Robert (2006). The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History. pp. 51–53. ISBN 0-8264-8011-X.
- ^ Bigham, Steven (1995). The image of God the Father in Orthodox theology and iconography. pp. 226–227. ISBN 1-879038-15-3.
- ^ Michalski, Sergiusz (1993). Reformation and the Visual Arts. p. 195. ISBN 0-415-06512-7.
- ^ Payton, James R. (2007). Light from the Christian East: An Introduction to the Orthodox Tradition. pp. 178–179. ISBN 0-8308-2594-0.
- ^ Williams, Rowan (2003). The Dwelling of the Light: Praying with Icons of Christ. p. 83. ISBN 1-85311-562-2.
- ^ "General audience 29 October 1997". Vatican website. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
- ^ "General audience 6 May 2009". Vatican website. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
- ^ Doninger, p. 231.
- ^ Casiday, Augustine (2012). The Orthodox Christian World. p. 447. ISBN 0-415-45516-2.
- ^ Dillenberger 1999, p. 5.
- ^ Thurston, Herbert (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).
- ^ Pope John Paul II (1998-05-24). "Pope John Paul II's address in Turin Cathedral". Holy See.
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(help) - Barnett, Paul (2002). Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times. ISBN 0-8308-2699-8.
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(help) - Brown, Raymond E. (1994). The Death of the Messiah: from Gethsemane to the Grave: A Commentary on the Passion Narratives in the Four Gospels. New York: Doubleday, Anchor Bible Reference Library. ISBN 978-0-385-19397-9.
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(help) - Burridge, Richard A.; Gould, Graham (2004). Jesus Now and Then. ISBN 0-8028-0977-4.
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(help) - Carson, D. A.; Moo, Douglas J.; Morris, Leon (1992). An Introduction to the New Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House.
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(help) - Carter, Warren (2003). Pontius Pilate: portraits of a Roman governor. ISBN 978-0-8146-5113-1.
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(help) - Crossan, John D. (1993). The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant. New York: HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0-06-061629-6.
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(help) - Davies, W. D.; Allison, Dale C. (2004). Matthew 1-7. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-567-08355-5.
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(help) - Donahue, John R.; Harrington, Daniel J. (2002). The Gospel of Mark. Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-5804-8.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Doninger, Wendy (1999). Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions. Merriam-Webster. ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Dunn, James D.G. (2003). Jesus Remembered. ISBN 0-8028-3931-2.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Düzgün, Şaban Ali (2004). Uncovering Islam: Questions and Answers about Islamic Beliefs and Teachings. The Presidency of Religious Affairs. Ankara: Diyanet Isleri Baskanligi. ISBN 978-975-19-3636-3. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Eddy, Paul R.; Boyd, Gregory A. (2007). The Jesus legend: a case for the historical reliability of the synoptic Jesus tradition. Baker Academic. ISBN 978-0-8010-3114-4.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Ehrman, Bart (1999). Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512474-X.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Ehrman, Bart (2011). Forged: writing in the name of God – Why the Bible's Authors Are Not Who We Think They Are. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-207863-6.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Evans, Craig A. (2003). The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew-Luke. David C Cook. ISBN 978-0-7814-3868-1.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Evans, Craig A. (2005). The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: John's Gospel, Hebrews-Revelation. David C Cook. ISBN 978-0-7814-4228-2.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Evans, Craig A. (2012). Jesus and His World: The Archaeological Evidence. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-23413-3.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Fredriksen, Paula (2000). Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity. New York: Vintage. ISBN 0-679-76746-0.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Freedman, David N. (2000). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 90-5356-503-5.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Grant, Michael (1977). Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels. Scribner's. ISBN 978-0-684-14889-2.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Green, Joel B. (1997). The gospel of Luke: New International Commentary on the New Testament Series. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-2315-1.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Grudem, Wayne (1994). Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. ISBN 0-310-28670-0.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Lee, Dorothy A. (2005). Transfiguration. ISBN 978-0-8264-7595-4.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Houlden, J. Leslie (2003). Jesus in history, thought, and culture: an encyclopedia, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-856-3.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Houlden, J. Leslie (2006). Jesus: the complete guide. ISBN 0-8264-8011-X.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Köstenberger, Andreas J.; Kellum, L. Scott; Quarles, Charles L (2009). The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament. ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Levine, Amy-Jill (2006). "Introduction". In Levine, Amy-Jill; Allison, Dale C.; Crossan, John D. (eds.). The Historical Jesus in Context. Princeton Univ Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00992-6.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Liddell, Henry G.; Scott, Robert (1889). An Intermediate Greek–English Lexicon: The Seventh Edition of Liddell and Scott's Greek–English Lexicon. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-1-84902-595-9.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Maier, Paul L. (1989). "The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus". In Vardaman, Jerry; Yamauchi, Edwin M. (eds.). Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies. ISBN 0-931464-50-1.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Maier, Paul L. (1991). In the Fullness of Time. Kregel.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Majerník, Ján; Ponessa, Joseph; Manhardt, Laurie W. (2005). The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke. ISBN 1-931018-31-6.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - McClymond, Michael J. (2004). Familiar stranger: an introduction to Jesus of Nazareth. ISBN 0-8028-2680-6.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - Meier, John P. (1991). A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus. Vol. 1. New York: Anchor Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-26425-9.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - Meier, John P. (1994). A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus. Vol. 2. New York: Anchor Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-46992-6.
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(help) - Meier, John P. (2006). "How do we decide what comes from Jesus". In Dunn, James D. G.; McKnight, Scot (eds.). The Historical Jesus in Recent Research. ISBN 1-57506-100-7.
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: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Mills, Watson E.; Bullard, Roger A. (1998). Mercer dictionary of the Bible. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press. ISBN 0-86554-373-9.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Morris, Leon (1992). The Gospel according to Matthew. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85111-338-8.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Niswonger, Richard L. (1992). New Testament History. ISBN 0-310-31201-9.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - Pannenberg, Wolfhart (1968). Jesus—God and Man. S.C.M. Press. ISBN 978-0-334-00783-8.
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(help) - Powell, Mark A. (1998). Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee. ISBN 0-664-25703-8.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - Price, Robert M. (2009). "Jesus at the Vanishing Point". In Beilby, James K.; Eddy, Paul R. (eds.). The Historical Jesus: Five Views. InterVarsity. ISBN 0-281-06329-X.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Rahner, Karl (2004). Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi. ISBN 0-86012-006-6.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - Rausch, Thomas P. (2003). Who is Jesus?: an introduction to Christology. Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-8146-5078-3.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - Redford, Douglas (2007). The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels. ISBN 0-7847-1900-4.
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(help) - Reed, Jonathan L. (2002). Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus: a re-examination of the evidence. ISBN 1-56338-394-2.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - Sanders, E.P. (1993). The Historical Figure of Jesus. London: Allen Lane Penguin Press. ISBN 978-0-7139-9059-1.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - Schnackenburg, Rudolf (2002). The Gospel of Matthew. ISBN 0-8028-4438-3.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - Stanton, Ghraham (2002). The Gospels and Jesus. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924616-5.
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(help) - Sykes, S. W. (2007). Paul's understanding of the death of Jesus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-04460-X.
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ignored (help) - Talbert, Charles H. (2010). Matthew. Baker Academic. ISBN 978-0-8010-3192-2.
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(help) - Theissen, Gerd; Merz, Annette (1998). The historical Jesus : a comprehensive guide. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. ISBN 0-8006-3122-6.
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(help) - Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0-8028-4368-9.
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(help) - Vermes, Géza (1973). Jesus the Jew. Philadelphia: Fortress Press.
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(help) - Vermes, Geza (2004). The authentic gospel of Jesus. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-100360-3.
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(help) - Vermes, Géza (2006). "The Nativity: History and Legend". London: Penguin.
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(help) - Wright, N. T. (1998). HarperCollins.
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(help) - Walvoord, John F.; Zuck, Roy B. (1983). The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament. David C Cook. ISBN 978-0-88207-812-0.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - Wells, George A. (2004). Can We Trust the New Testament?. Open Court Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8126-9567-0.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - Theissen, Gerd; Winter, Dagmar (2002). The Quest for the Plausible Jesus: The Question of Criteria. ISBN 0-664-22537-3.
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(help) - Vine, WE (1940). Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words. Old Tappan, NJ: Fleming H. Revell Company.
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(help) - Witherington, Ben (1997). The Jesus Quest: The Third Search for the Jew of Nazareth. ISBN 0-8308-1544-9.
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(help) - Witherington, Ben (1998). "Primary Sources". Christian History.
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ignored (help) - Zanzig, Thomas (2000). Jesus of history, Christ of faith. ISBN 0-88489-530-0.
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External links
- Complete Sayings of Jesus Christ in parallel Latin and English
- "Jesus Christ." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12 Nov. 2009
- From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians – documentary about Jesus' life and the early Church.
- The Jewish Roman World of Jesus
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