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Punjabi Muslims

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Punjabi Muslims
پنجابی مسلمان
Regions with significant populations
 Pakistan111,303,000 (see below)
 India535,489[1]
 United Kingdom500,000[2]
 United States263,699[3]
 Canada~100,000[4] (2021 estimate)
Languages
Standard Punjabi, Western Punjabi and its dialects, Urdu
Religion
Islam
(Sunni majority, Shia minority)
Related ethnic groups
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Punjabi Muslims (Template:Lang-pa) are adherents of Islam who identify ethnically, linguistically, culturally, and genealogically as Punjabis. With a population of more than 109 million,[5][6] they are the largest ethnic group in Pakistan and the world's third-largest Islam-adhering ethnicity[7] after Arabs[8] and Bengalis.[9] The majority of Punjabi Muslims are adherents of Sunni Islam, while a minority adhere to Shia Islam. They are primarily geographically native to the Punjab province of Pakistan, but many have ancestry from the Punjab region as a whole.

Forming the majority of the Punjabi ethnicity in the greater Punjab region (overall in the South Asia),[5] Punjabi Muslims speak or identify the Punjabi language (under a Perso-Arabic script known as Shahmukhi) as their mother tongue.

Identity

Traditionally, the Punjabi identity is primarily linguistic, geographical and cultural. It is independent of historical origins and refers to those who reside in the Punjab region or associate with its population and those who consider the Punjabi language their mother tongue.[10] The coalescence of the various tribes, castes and the inhabitants of the Punjab region into a broader common "Punjabi" identity initiated from the onset of the 18th century CE.[11][12][13] Integration and assimilation are important parts of Punjabi culture, since Punjabi identity is not based solely on tribal connections.[14] Islam spread in the region via missionary Sufi saints whose dargahs dot the landscape of the Punjab region thereby becoming the faith of majority by the 16th century. This contributed to formation of a Punjabi Muslim identity.[15][16][17][18]

History

Main articles: History of Punjab, Religion in the Punjab, and List of Punjabi Muslims

Early period

At the advent of Islam, Punjab was part of the Taank Kingdom. According to local traditions, Baba Ratan Hindi, who was a trader from Bhatinda, Punjab, was one of the Sahaba of Prophet Muhammad.[19][20][21][22][23] He was later ordered by Prophet Muhammad to return to his homeland, where his shrine exists till today at Bhatinda.[24] Jats were earliest people to interact with Muslims, as their trading communities already existed in pre-Islamic Arabia during the lifetime of Muhammad.[25]

A king of Al-Usaifan, identified with kingdom of Taxila by some authors, is said to have converted to Islam during the reign of Al-Mu'tasim by Al-Biladhuri.[26][27] However, Islam as a political power got introduced via southern Punjab in the 8th century after the Umayyad conquest of Sindh. The first Muslim state in Punjab was the Emirate of Multan, which got independent in 855 during the disintegration of the Abbasid Caliphate. In the 11th century, Islam entered northern Punjab after the defeat of the Hindu Shahis by the Ghaznavids. The city of Lahore emerged as a thriving city, rivalling Ghazni and effectively acted as a second capital of the empire.[28][29] Under their patronage, poets and scholars from Kashgar, Bukhara, Samarkand, Baghdad, Nishapur, Amol and Ghazni congregated in the region.[30]

Buddhism had declined after the fall of the Kushans and largely disappeared by the turn of the 10th century.[31][32] Forms of Hinduism began to become prevalent in parts of the society during the rule of the White Huns. With the arrival of Islam, conversion occurred mostly amongst pastoralist or agricultural groups that were not integrated into the Hindu Varna social class hierarchy.[15] The tribes of the Bar region would be contacted by Sufi mystics like Fariduddin Ganjshakar over the centuries and converted to Islam, albeit a syncretic form. Gakhars of the Pothohar plateau were noted for their martial capabilities and gradually converted to Islam. [15]

The Shrine of Baba Farid, one of the most notable Punjabi Sufi saints

Medieval period

In 1161, the Ghurids conquered the city of Ghazni, forcing the Ghaznavids to shift their capital to Lahore. Soon, however, Muhammad Ghori invaded Punjab, conquering Lahore and Multan in 1186 and making them part of his expanding empire. His Mamluk slaves lead Muslim amies as far as Bengal. In 1206, Muhammad Ghori decisively defeated the Khokhārs at Jhelum, prompting them to assassinate him at Damiak.[33] one of his Mamluk slaves, Qutb-ud-din Aibak established the Delhi Sultanate and Punjab became a part of the empire. The early period of the Delhi Sultanate saw numerous Mongol invasions of Punjab. Ultimately, they were defeated during the rule of Khalji dynasty.[34] During the reign of Khaljis Ayn-Ul-Mulk Multani, a General of Delhi Sultanate who hailed from Multan, Punjab conquered Malwa subsequently ending the Paramara Dynasty, he would be later named Wazir of the Delhi Sultanate during the rule of Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah.[35]

In 1320, Ghazi Malik rose to the throne with the support of the Khokhar chiefs, establishing the Tughlaq dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.[36][37] During his reign, a war ballad was produced by Amir Khusrau for him, known as the Vaar in Punjabi, describing his rise to the throne fighting against Khusrau Shah.[38]

Territories of the Delhi Sultanate under Khizr Khan.[39][40]

Tughlaq power began to decline with Jauna Khan's death in 1351. Timur led a brutal invasion in 1398 and plundered Delhi.[41] This oversaw the ascendancy of several Punjabi nobles to power. Taking advantage of the ensuing chaos, Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain from Khokhār clan,[40] became Sultan of Delhi in 1414. He was the founder of the Sayyid dynasty, the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate after the fall of the Tughlaqs.[42] In 1407, Sultan Muzaffar Shah I, a Punjabi Rajput or Khatri from Tānk clan,[43][44] declared independence and established the Gujarat Sultanate. The Khokhār chieftain Jasrath Khokhar helped Zain-ul-Abidin of Kashmir to gain his throne and also asserted control over vast tracts of Jammu and North Punjab. Meanwhile, in 1445, the Punjabi Lāngah clan conquered south Punjab and established the Langah Sultanate in Multan.[45]

Early modern period

Mughal Empire

In 1525, the Mughal emperor Babur made alliance with the Gākhar chieftains of Pothohar and invaded Hindustan during the reign of the Lodi dynasty under Ibrahim Khan Lodi. The Gākhars remained loyal to the alliance even when Sher Shah Suri overthrew the Mughals under Humayun. This caused Sher Shah Suri to invade Pothohar and Sarang Khan Ghakkar died fighting against him.[46] After his death, the Gakhars continued their resistance under Sarang's brother Adam Khan Ghakkar.[47] To subdue the Gakhars, Sher Shah Suri ordered the construction of the Rohtas fort in the region which is a World Heritage Site now.[48][49] The Sur dynasty's struggle against the Gakhars continued after the death of Sher Shah Suri by his successor Islam Shah Suri, but this area was never subdued even by the Mughals subsequently.[50] Kamal Khan Gakhar, who succeeded Adam Khan as the ruler of Pothohar Plateau, led several campaigns as a Mughal general against the Miyani Afghans in Malwa and participated with large contingents in the Second Battle of Panipat and against Muhammad Adil Suri.[51] Shaikh Gadai Kamboh, was an important figure at the court of the Mughal emperor Humayun, he would later be appointed the Sadr and Chief Qadi of the Empire in Akbar's reign.[52]

Rohtas Fort in Pothohar Plateau is a World Heritage Site

The Mughals divided Punjab into Subah of Lahore and Subah of Multan. During the Mughal era, Saadullah Khan, belonging to the Thāheem clan[53] became Grand Vizier (or Prime Minister) of the Mughal empire in the period 1645 to 1656. He oversaw construction of several Mughal monuments under the supervision of Punjabi architect Ustad Ahmad Lahori and also lead Mughal army to Balkh in 1646 during Shah Jahan's campaign in the region.[54] He was paternal ancestor of Muzaffar Jang Hidayat, the 3rd Nizam of Hyderabad.[55] Wazir Khan of Chiniot was also the Grand Vizier in the early Shāh Jahani era.[56] Other prominent Punjabi Muslims nobles during the Mughal Era include Adina Beg Arain,[57] Isa Khan Munj, Ikhlas Khan[58]and Shahbaz Khan Kamboh. [59]Sayyid brothers, the famous kingmakers in the 18th century were descendants of Punjabi peasants who had migrated from Patiala to Muzaffarnagar, their father Sayyid Mian was a prominent Alamgiri noble.[60] Dulla Bhatti was a 16th-century Punjabi folk hero who supposedly led a revolt against Mughal rule during the reign of the Mughal emperor Akbar.[61]

During these centuries of Mughal rule, Punjabi Muslims established centers of Islamic civilization in cities and towns such as Lahore and Sialkot, and Punjabi Muslim scholars were "in high demand", teaching the Islamic sciences as far as Central Asia, in cities such as Bukhara, even being considered there as native saints within their lifetimes.[62] Influential Muslim scholars born in Punjab during that period include Abdul Hakim Sialkoti and Ahmad Sirhindi.

After the decline of the Mughal power in the 18th century, Punjab was once again divided into petty chieftancies. The situation remained as such till the Sikh occupation of Punjab in the next century.[63]

After the Mughal authority collapsed, Hyder Ali, a Punjabi adventurer, rose to power in the south Indian Mysore kingdom and took over its control. He and his son Tipu Sultan are noted for the maximum expansion of the state, leading Mysore during Anglo-Mysore wars as well as pioneering modern rocketry.[64][65][66]

Sikh Empire

See also: Sial kingdom and Gakhar kingdom
Map of Doabs in Punjab

The two major Punjabi Muslim states that existed in 18th century Punjab were the Sial and the Gakhar kingdoms in the central Punjab after fall of the Mughals. Sials with their capital at Jhang conquered Lower Rachna and Sindh Sagar Doabs under their chief Inayatullah Khan (r.1747–1787)[67] while Gakhar Sultan Muqarrab Khan (r.1738–1769) established rule over Potohar and Chaj Doab.[68] However, Sikhs gradually expanded westwards. The Bhangi Misl, which also controlled Lahore, launched an invasion of Gakhar ruled region and seized control of the cities of Rawalpindi (1767) and Gujrat (1765). Under Ranjit Singh, Sikhs also conquered Jhelum (1808) and Pharwala (1818) from the Gakhars, ending their rule. The Chattha, Tarar and Bhatti tribes, which controlled Wazirabad, were defeated in 1801.[69] The Sial ruled cities Chiniot (1810) and Jhang (1816) successively fell to the Sikhs after defeat of the last Sial chieftain, Ahmed Khan.[70][71] Sikhs also conquered the cities of Kasur (1807), Attock (1813) and Multan (1818) from the Durrani Empire.

Views of the Sikh Empire rule, are mixed amongst different Punjabi Muslim groups. Ranjit Singh is seen favourably by a section of Punjabi activists in Pakistan but remains overall largely negative.[72]

The mid 19th-century Punjabi Muslim historians, such as Shahamat Ali who experienced the Sikh Empire first hand, presented a different view on Ranjit Singh's empire and governance.[73][74] According to Ali, Ranjit Singh's government was despotic, and he was a mean monarch in contrast to the Mughals.[73] His account portrays Ranjit Singh as leading his Khalsa army's "insatiable appetite for plunder", their desire for "fresh cities to pillage", and eliminating the Mughal era "revenue intercepting intermediaries between the peasant-cultivator and the treasury".[75] Bikramjit Hasrat describes Ranjit Singh as a "benevolent despot".[76] As a symbolic assertion of power, the Sikhs regularly desecrated Muslim places of worship, including closing of the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar and the conversion of the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore to an ammunition store and horse stable, but the empire still maintained Persian administrative institutions and court etiquette; the Sikh silver rupees were minted on the Mughal standard with Persian legends.[77][78]

Historian Robina Yasmin, on the other hand, argues against the stereotypical narratives of claimed anti-Muslim oppression by the Sikh Empire.[79] After researching contemporary sources held in the Fakir Khana archives in Pakistan and England, she concluded that the Sikh rulers were secular and allowed their Muslim subjects to freely practice their religion.[79] She also points out the fact that during the reign of the Sikh Empire in Punjab, there was never a single case of rebellion against the Sikh authorities by Muslims.[79] She further claims any beliefs of maltreatment of Muslims is based upon misunderstandings of the condition of the Muslim community during the Sikh Empire.[79]

Colonial period

War of Independence (1857)

The news of Indian Rebellion of 1857 reached in Punjab quite late. Jhelum in Punjab saw a rebellion in which 35 British soldiers were killed on 7 July 1857. Among the dead was Captain Francis Spring, the eldest son of Colonel William Spring.[80] On 9 July, most of thebrigade of sepoys at Sialkot rebelled and began to move to Delhi.[81] They were intercepted by John Nicholson with an equal British force as they tried to cross the Ravi River. After fighting steadily but unsuccessfully for several hours, the sepoys tried to fall back across the river but became trapped on an island, they were defeated by Nicholson in the Battle of Trimmu Ghat.[82]: 290–293  However, the main opponent of the British rule in Punjab was Rai Ahmad Khan Kharal who waged war against it for three months in central Punjab. He was de facto ruler of Jhamra. He was killed on 21 September, 1857 in the Battle of Noorey di Dall while inflicting heavy losses to the British. However, the rebellion died out eventually.[83]

In the British Indian Army

Punjabi Muslims, classified as a "martial race" by the British colonialists,[84] made a substantial part of the British Indian Army, British academic David Omissi calling them the single largest group in both World Wars,[85] at the eve of World War II accounting for around 29% of its total numbers.[86]

Despite such collaboration, there was also a history of popular resistance from Punjabi Muslims against British colonialism, including during the 1857 Indian Rebellion with the likes of Rai Ahmad Khan Kharal, facts which historian Turab-ul-Hassan Sargana says have been undermined because the elites of Punjab who collaborated with the British are those who still rule Pakistan today.[87]

Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan was the first Premier of the Punjab

Administrative reforms

The Government of India Act 1935 introduced provincial autonomy to Punjab replacing the system of dyarchy. It provided for the constitution of Punjab Legislative Assembly of 175 members presided by a Speaker and an executive government responsible to the Assembly. The Unionist Party under a Punjabi Muslim, Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan formed the government in 1937. Sir Sikandar was succeeded by Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana in 1942 who remained the Premier till partition in 1947. Although the term of the Assembly was five years, the Assembly continued for about eight years and its last sitting was held on 19 March 1945.[88]

Majlis-e Ahrar-e Islam

During the 1930s and the 1940s, the Majlis-e Ahrar-e Islam, an anti-colonial Islamist political party founded in 1929 as an offshoot of the Khilafat Movement and a close collaborator of the Indian National Congress, became the dominant political force among Punjabi Muslims, especially among the lower middle echelons and the artisan classes, the Ahrar's having a diversity of Islamic schools but generally subscribed to a Deobandi interpretation with an Islamic socialist approach as well.[89]

After independence

During the Partition of 1947, millions also migrated from East Punjab to West Punjab to escape violence from Hindu and Sikh militias.[90] After independence, Punjabis formed the dominant ethnicity of Pakistan.

Culture

Sufism

Further information: Sufism in Punjab

Sufism has also played a major role in the history of Punjab.[91] Many prominent Sufi saints were born in Punjab, including Fariduddin Ganjshakar, Waris Shah and Bulleh Shah.[92][93]

The shrine of 13th century Punjabi Sufi saint Rukn-e-Alam in Multan

Language

Punjabi Muslims had a major contribution in the development of Punjabi language. Fariduddin Ganjshakar (1179–1266) is generally recognised as the first major poet of the Punjabi language.[94] Roughly from the 12th century to the 19th century, many great Sufi saints and poets preached in the Punjabi language, the most prominent being Bulleh Shah. Punjabi Sufi poetry also developed under Shah Hussain (1538–1599), Sultan Bahu (1630–1691), Shah Sharaf (1640–1724), Ali Haider (1690–1785), Waris Shah (1722–1798), Saleh Muhammad Safoori (1747–1826), Mian Muhammad Baksh (1830–1907) and Khwaja Ghulam Farid (1845–1901).

Literature

The Punjabi language is famous for its rich literature of qisse, most of which are about love, passion, betrayal, sacrifice, social values and a common man's revolt against a larger system. The qissa of Heer Ranjha by Waris Shah (1706–1798) is among the most popular of Punjabi qissas. Other popular stories include Sohni Mahiwal by Fazal Shah, Mirza Sahiban by Hafiz Barkhudar (1658–1707), Sassui Punnhun by Hashim Shah (c. 1735–c. 1843), and Qissa Puran Bhagat by Qadaryar (1802–1892). In contrast to Persian poets, who had preferred the ghazal for poetic expression, Punjabi Sufi poets tended to compose in the Kafi.[95]

Music

See also: Music of Punjab

Punjabi music is used by western musicians in many ways, such as mixing with other compositions. Sufi music and Qawali, commonly practiced in Punjab, Pakistan; are other important genres in the Punjab region.[96][97]

Folk music of Punjab is the traditional music of Punjab produced using traditional musical instruments like Tumba, Algoza, Dhadd, Sarangi, Chimta and more. There is a wide range of folk songs for every occasion from birth to death including marriage, festivals, fairs and religious ceremonies.

Demographics

Punjabi Muslims are found almost exclusively in Pakistan with 98% of Punjabis who live in Pakistan following Islam, in contrast to Punjabi Sikhs and Punjabi Hindus who predominantly live in India.[98] Thus religious homogeneity remains elusive as a predominant Sunni population with Shia, Ahmadiyya and Christian minorities.[99]

Numbers

While the total population of Punjab is 127 million as noted in the 2023 Pakistan census,[100][101] ethnic Punjabis comprise approximately 44.7% of the national population.[102][103] Ethnic Punjabis, that is, discounting the local Kashmiris, Pashtuns and Baloch residents, thus number approximately 111,303,000 million in Pakistan; this makes Punjabis the largest ethnic group in Pakistan by population.[102][103]

Tribes and clans

Punjabi Muslim society is centered around the concept of biraderi (برادری), social brotherhood within the tribe and clan.

The major tribes and clans among Punjabi Muslims are the Jats, Rajputs, Arains, Ansari, Sheikh, Gujjars and Awans.[104]

In his 1911-book The Armies of India, British major Sir George Fletcher MacMunn would write that Muslims of Punjab "are of many mixed races, but who largely consist of Rajput tribes converted to Islam at various times in the past."[105] As per the 1921 census, in the Punjab province of British India, comprising Pakistan's modern provinces of Western Punjab and some parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa as well India's modern states and union territories of Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi, and some parts of Himachal Pradesh, 70,7% of the Rajputs followed Islam while 27,7% were Hindus.[106]

See also

Notes

References

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  65. ^ Moon, Penderel (1989). The British Conquest and Dominion of India. Duckworth. ISBN 978-0-253-33836-5. Haidar Ali, a Punjabi by origin...
  66. ^ Dalrymple, William (10 September 2019). The Anarchy: The East India Company, Corporate Violence, and the Pillage of an Empire. Bloomsbury USA. ISBN 978-1-63557-395-4. Haidar, who was of Punjabi origin, had risen in the ranks of the Mysore army
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  78. ^ Chida-Razvi, Mehreen (20 September 2020). The Friday Mosque in the City: Liminality, Ritual, and Politics. Intellect Books. pp. 91–94. ISBN 978-1-78938-304-1. In addition to the masjid's use as a site for military storage, stables for the cavalry horses, and barracks for soldiers, parts of it were also used as storage for powder magazines.
  79. ^ a b c d Yasmin, Robina (2022). "Conclusion". Muslims Under Sikh Rule in the Nineteenth Century: Maharaja Ranjit Singh and Religious Tolerance. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 127–132. ISBN 9780755640348. This study was undertaken with a new paradigm to understand the condition of the Muslims under Sikh rule in the Punjab. It challenges the stereotypical approaches, which highlight contradictions between Muslims and Sikhs. Some historians have pointed out that the Sikh rulers mistreated the Muslims, harmed their religion and damaged their religious places. In support of this, they claim that not only did the Muslims of India show resentment, but also that some of them started Tehrik-e-Mujahidin against Ranjit Singh's state. The author, with new evidence from the Fakir Khana archives in Pakistan and England, has developed the hypothesis that the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh and his successors adopted a secular approach towards minorities, including the Muslims - that is, there was not a single movement within the Punjab started by Muslims against the Sikh rulers. Instead, the Tehrik-e-Mujahidin that was launched against the alleged maltreatment of the Muslims was actually the result of a misperception of the Muslims' condition in the Punjab, and a number of studies have already shown that Tehrik-e-Mujahidin had many other motives as well.
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  85. ^ Omissi, David (8 April 2001). "Military Planning and Wartime Recruitment (India)". The single most numerous "class" of Indian recruits in both world wars, however, was the Punjabi Muslims
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  96. ^ Pande, Alka (1999). Folk music & musical instruments of Punjab : from mustard fields to disco lights. Ahmedabad [India]: Mapin Pub. ISBN 978-18-902-0615-4.
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  106. ^ Sharma, Subash Chander (1987). Punjab, the Crucial Decade. New Delhi: Nirmal Publishers & Distributors. p. 105. ISBN 9788171561735.
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