COVID-19 pandemic

COVID-19 pandemic
Map of confirmed cases per capita as of 16 May 2020   10+ confirmed cases per 1,000   3–10 confirmed cases per 1,000   1–3 confirmed cases per 1,000   0.3–1 confirmed cases per 1,000   0.1–0.3 confirmed cases per 1,000   >0–0.1 confirmed cases per 1,000   No confirmed cases or no data
Total confirmed cases map Map of total confirmed cases as of 15 May 2020   1,000,000+ confirmed cases   100,000–999,999 confirmed cases   10,000–99,999 confirmed cases   1,000–9,999 confirmed cases   100–999 confirmed cases   1–99 confirmed cases   No confirmed cases or no data
Confirmed deaths per capita map Map of confirmed deaths per capita as of 15 May 2020   100+ confirmed deaths per million   10–100 confirmed deaths per million   1–10 confirmed deaths per million   0.1–1 confirmed deaths per million   >0–0.1 confirmed deaths per million   No confirmed deaths or no data
Confirmed cases per capita interactive timeline Timeline map of confirmed cases per capita (drag circle to adjust; may not work on mobile) See larger version   1,000+ confirmed cases per million   100–1,000 confirmed cases per million   10–100 confirmed cases per million   >0–10 confirmed cases per million   No confirmed cases or no data
Meeting of the Italian government task force to face the coronavirus outbreak, 23 February 2020 (clockwise from top) A nurse caring for a COVID-19 patient in an intensive care unit aboard a U.S. hospital ship Disinfection vehicles in Taipei, Taiwan Low stock in an Australian supermarket due to panic buying Health checks at Linate Airport in Milan, Italy The Italian government's outbreak task force
Disease	Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)
Virus strain	Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2)
Source	Probably bats, possibly via pangolins or lepidopteraes
Location	Worldwide
First outbreak	China
Index case	Wuhan, Hubei, China 30°37′11″N 114°15′28″E
Date	December 2019 – present (4 years, 11 months and 1 week)
Confirmed cases	676,609,955
Active cases
Recovered
Deaths	6,881,955
Territories

The COVID-19 pandemic, also known as the coronavirus pandemic, is an ongoing pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‑19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2). The outbreak was first identified in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. The World Health Organization declared the outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern on 30 January, and a pandemic on 11 March. As of 10 March 2023, more than 676 million cases of COVID-19 have been reported in more than countries and territories, resulting in more than 6.88 million deaths. More than people have recovered.

Common symptoms include fever, cough, fatigue, shortness of breath, and loss of smell. Complications may include pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome. The time from exposure to onset of symptoms is typically around five days, but may range from two to fourteen days. There is no known vaccine or specific antiviral treatment. Primary treatment is symptomatic and supportive therapy.

Recommended preventive measures include hand washing, covering one's mouth when coughing, maintaining distance from other people, wearing a face mask in public settings, and monitoring and self-isolation for people who suspect they are infected. Authorities worldwide have responded by implementing travel restrictions, lockdowns, workplace hazard controls, and facility closures. Many places have also worked to increase testing capacity and trace contacts of infected persons.

The pandemic has caused severe global economic disruption, including the largest global recession since the Great Depression. It has led to the postponement or cancellation of sporting, religious, political and cultural events, widespread supply shortages exacerbated by panic buying, and decreased emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases. Schools, universities, and colleges have closed either on a nationwide or local basis in 63 countries, affecting approximately 47 per cent of the world's student population. Misinformation about the virus has spread online, and there have been incidents of xenophobia and discrimination against Chinese people and against those perceived as being Chinese, or as being from areas with high infection rates.

Video summary (script) on the coronavirus disease

Epidemiology

Updated November 10, 2024.

COVID-19 pandemic by location

	Location	Cases	Deaths
	World	776,753,553	7,073,453
	European Union	186,262,640	1,265,282
	United States	103,436,829	1,206,141
	China	99,381,078	122,367
	India	45,044,196	533,653
	France	39,024,965	168,091
	Germany	38,437,756	174,979
	Brazil	37,511,921	702,116
	South Korea	34,571,873	35,934
	Japan	33,803,572	74,694
	Italy	26,826,486	197,542
	United Kingdom	25,010,212	232,112
	Russia	24,572,846	403,557
	Turkey	17,004,729	101,419
	Spain	13,980,340	121,852
	Australia	11,861,161	25,236
	Vietnam	11,624,000	43,206
	Argentina	10,106,404	130,697
	Taiwan	9,970,937	17,672
	Netherlands	8,644,647	22,986
	Iran	7,627,863	146,837
	Mexico	7,622,283	334,783
	Indonesia	6,829,704	162,059
	Poland	6,758,426	120,897
	Colombia	6,394,361	142,727
	Austria	6,082,860	22,534
	Greece	5,727,906	39,639
	Portugal	5,669,567	29,027
	Ukraine	5,541,305	109,923
	Chile	5,403,559	64,482
	Malaysia	5,318,418	37,351
	Belgium	4,889,242	34,339
	Israel	4,841,558	12,707
	Canada	4,819,055	55,282
	Czech Republic	4,811,887	43,687
	Thailand	4,803,632	34,734
	Peru	4,526,977	220,975
	Switzerland	4,468,044	14,170
	Philippines	4,173,631	66,864
	South Africa	4,072,813	102,595
	Romania	3,566,594	68,899
	Denmark	3,442,484	9,919
	Singapore	3,006,155	2,024
	Hong Kong	2,876,106	13,466
	Sweden	2,765,204	28,006
	New Zealand	2,652,096	4,442
	Serbia	2,583,470	18,057
	Iraq	2,465,545	25,375
	Hungary	2,236,219	49,092
	Bangladesh	2,051,463	29,499
	Slovakia	1,883,895	21,249
	Georgia	1,864,383	17,151
	Republic of Ireland	1,750,138	9,900
	Jordan	1,746,997	14,122
	Pakistan	1,580,631	30,656
	Norway	1,524,523	5,732
	Kazakhstan	1,504,370	19,072
	Finland	1,499,712	11,466
	Lithuania	1,400,088	9,848
	Slovenia	1,359,884	9,914
	Croatia	1,348,642	18,775
	Bulgaria	1,337,733	38,751
	Morocco	1,279,115	16,305
	Puerto Rico	1,252,713	5,938
	Guatemala	1,250,392	20,203
	Lebanon	1,239,904	10,947
	Costa Rica	1,235,724	9,374
	Bolivia	1,212,149	22,387
	Tunisia	1,153,361	29,423
	Cuba	1,113,662	8,530
	Ecuador	1,078,795	36,055
	United Arab Emirates	1,067,030	2,349
	Panama	1,044,987	8,756
	Uruguay	1,041,682	7,686
	Mongolia	1,011,489	2,136
	Nepal	1,003,450	12,031
	Belarus	994,038	7,118
	Latvia	977,765	7,475
	Saudi Arabia	841,469	9,646
	Azerbaijan	836,474	10,353
	Paraguay	735,759	19,880
	Cyprus	708,580	1,492
	Palestine	703,228	5,708
	Bahrain	696,614	1,536
	Sri Lanka	672,809	16,907
	Kuwait	667,290	2,570
	Dominican Republic	661,103	4,384
	Moldova	650,609	12,281
	Myanmar	643,215	19,494
	Estonia	612,467	2,998
	Venezuela	552,695	5,856
	Egypt	516,023	24,830
	Qatar	514,524	690
	Libya	507,269	6,437
	Ethiopia	501,239	7,574
	Réunion	494,595	921
	Honduras	472,909	11,114
	Armenia	453,016	8,778
	Bosnia and Herzegovina	403,960	16,402
	Oman	399,449	4,628
	Luxembourg	396,017	1,000
	North Macedonia	352,043	9,990
	Zambia	349,892	4,078
	Brunei	349,279	181
	Kenya	344,109	5,689
	Albania	337,195	3,608
	Botswana	330,696	2,801
	Mauritius	329,121	1,074
	Kosovo	274,279	3,212
	Algeria	272,173	6,881
	Nigeria	267,189	3,155
	Zimbabwe	266,396	5,740
	Montenegro	251,280	2,654
	Afghanistan	235,214	7,998
	Mozambique	233,845	2,252
	Martinique	230,354	1,104
	Laos	219,060	671
	Iceland	210,675	186
	Guadeloupe	203,235	1,021
	El Salvador	201,960	4,230
	Trinidad and Tobago	191,496	4,390
	Maldives	186,694	316
	Uzbekistan	175,081	1,016
	Namibia	172,556	4,110
	Ghana	172,210	1,462
	Uganda	172,159	3,632
	Jamaica	157,326	3,618
	Cambodia	139,325	3,056
	Rwanda	133,266	1,468
	Cameroon	125,279	1,974
	Malta	123,136	925
	Barbados	108,835	593
	Angola	107,482	1,937
	Democratic Republic of the Congo	100,976	1,474
	French Guiana	98,041	413
	Senegal	89,312	1,972
	Malawi	89,168	2,686
	Kyrgyzstan	88,953	1,024
	Ivory Coast	88,448	835
	Suriname	82,503	1,406
	New Caledonia	80,203	314
	French Polynesia	79,451	650
	Eswatini	75,356	1,427
	Guyana	74,491	1,302
	Belize	71,430	688
	Fiji	69,047	885
	Madagascar	68,575	1,428
	Jersey	66,391	161
	Cabo Verde	64,474	417
	Sudan	63,993	5,046
	Mauritania	63,876	997
	Bhutan	62,697	21
	Syria	57,423	3,163
	Burundi	54,569	15
	Guam	52,287	419
	Seychelles	51,892	172
	Gabon	49,056	307
	Andorra	48,015	159
	Papua New Guinea	46,864	670
	Curaçao	45,883	305
	Aruba	44,224	292
	Tanzania	43,263	846
	Mayotte	42,027	187
	Togo	39,533	290
	Bahamas	39,127	849
	Guinea	38,582	468
	Isle of Man	38,008	116
	Lesotho	36,138	709
	Guernsey	35,326	67
	Faroe Islands	34,658	28
	Haiti	34,556	860
	Mali	33,171	743
	Federated States of Micronesia	31,765	65
	Cayman Islands	31,472	37
	Saint Lucia	30,288	410
	Benin	28,036	163
	Somalia	27,334	1,361
	Solomon Islands	25,954	199
	United States Virgin Islands	25,389	132
	San Marino	25,292	126
	Republic of the Congo	25,234	389
	Timor-Leste	23,460	138
	Burkina Faso	22,146	400
	Liechtenstein	21,605	89
	Gibraltar	20,550	113
	Grenada	19,693	238
	Bermuda	18,860	165
	South Sudan	18,847	147
	Tajikistan	17,786	125
	Monaco	17,181	67
	Equatorial Guinea	17,130	183
	Samoa	17,057	31
	Tonga	16,992	13
	Marshall Islands	16,297	17
	Nicaragua	16,194	245
	Dominica	16,047	74
	Djibouti	15,690	189
	Central African Republic	15,443	113
	Northern Mariana Islands	14,985	41
	Gambia	12,627	372
	Collectivity of Saint Martin	12,324	46
	Vanuatu	12,019	14
	Greenland	11,971	21
	Yemen	11,945	2,159
	Caribbean Netherlands	11,922	41
	Sint Maarten	11,051	92
	Eritrea	10,189	103
	Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	9,674	124
	Guinea-Bissau	9,614	177
	Niger	9,528	315
	Comoros	9,109	160
	Antigua and Barbuda	9,106	146
	American Samoa	8,359	34
	Liberia	8,090	294
	Sierra Leone	7,985	126
	Chad	7,702	194
	British Virgin Islands	7,628	64
	Cook Islands	7,375	2
	Turks and Caicos Islands	6,824	40
	Sao Tome and Principe	6,771	80
	Saint Kitts and Nevis	6,607	46
	Palau	6,372	10
	Saint Barthélemy	5,507	5
	Nauru	5,393	1
	Kiribati	5,085	24
	Anguilla	3,904	12
	Wallis and Futuna	3,760	9
	Macau	3,514	121
	Saint Pierre and Miquelon	3,426	2
	Tuvalu	2,943	1
	Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha	2,166	0
	Falkland Islands	1,923	0
	Montserrat	1,403	8
	Niue	1,092	0
	Tokelau	80	0
	Vatican City	26	0
	Pitcairn Islands	4	0
	Turkmenistan	0	0
	North Korea	0	0

Total confirmed cases of COVID-19 by country and territory (as of 10 November 2024):

  > 1,000,000 confirmed cases

  > 100,000 confirmed cases

  > 10,000 confirmed cases

  > 1,000 confirmed cases

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  > 1 confirmed cases

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Background

On 31 December 2019, health authorities in China reported to the World Health Organization (WHO) a cluster of viral pneumonia cases of unknown cause in Wuhan, Hubei Province, and an investigation was launched in early January 2020. On 30 January, the WHO declared the outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC)—7,818 cases confirmed globally, affecting 19 countries in five WHO regions.

Several of the early cases had visited Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market and so the virus is thought to have a zoonotic origin. The virus that caused the outbreak is known as SARS‑CoV‑2, a newly discovered virus closely related to bat coronaviruses, pangolin coronaviruses, and SARS-CoV. The scientific consensus is that COVID-19 has a natural origin. The probable bat-to-human infection may have been among people processing bat carcasses and guano in the production of traditional Chinese medicines.

The earliest known person with symptoms was later discovered to have fallen ill on 1 December 2019, and that person did not have visible connections with the later wet market cluster. Of the early cluster of cases reported that month, two-thirds were found to have a link with the market. On 13 March 2020, an unverified report from the South China Morning Post suggested a case traced back to 17 November 2019 (a 55-year-old from Hubei) may have been the first person infected.

The WHO recognized the spread of COVID-19 as a pandemic on 11 March 2020. Italy, Iran, South Korea, and Japan reported surging cases. The total numbers outside China quickly passed China's.

Cases

Main articles: COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory and COVID-19 pandemic cases

Cases refer to the number of people who have been tested for COVID-19, and whose test has been confirmed positive according to official protocols. As of 24 May, countries that publicised their testing data have typically performed a number of tests equal to 2.6 per cent of their population, while no country tested samples equal to more than 17.3 per cent of its population. Many countries, early on, had official policies to not test those with only mild symptoms. An analysis of the early phase of the outbreak up to 23 January estimated 86 per cent of COVID-19 infections had not been detected, and that these undocumented infections were the source for 79 per cent of documented cases. Several other studies, using a variety of methods, have estimated that numbers of infections in many countries are likely to be considerably greater than the reported cases.

On 9 April 2020, preliminary results found that 15 per cent of people tested in Gangelt, the centre of a major infection cluster in Germany, tested positive for antibodies. Screening for COVID-19 in pregnant women in New York City, and blood donors in the Netherlands, has also found rates of positive antibody tests that may indicate more infections than reported. However, such antibody surveys can be unreliable due to a selection bias in who volunteers to take the tests, and due to false positives. Some results (such as the Gangelt study) have received substantial press coverage without first passing through peer review.

Analysis by age in China indicates that a relatively low proportion of cases occur in individuals under 20. It is not clear whether this is because young people are actually less likely to be infected, or less likely to develop serious symptoms and seek medical attention and be tested. A retrospective cohort study in China found that children were as likely to be infected as adults. Countries that test more, relative to the number of deaths, have a younger age distributions of cases, relative to the wider population.

Initial estimates of the basic reproduction number (R₀) for COVID-19 in January were between 1.4 and 2.5, but a subsequent analysis has concluded that it may be about 5.7 (with a 95 per cent confidence interval of 3.8 to 8.9). R₀ can vary across populations, and is not to be confused with the effective reproduction number (commonly just called R), which takes into account effects such as social distancing and herd immunity. As of mid-May 2020, the effective R is close to or below 1.0 in many countries, meaning the spread of the disease in these areas is stable or decreasing.

• 
  Total confirmed cases of COVID-19 per million people
• 
  Epidemic curve of COVID-19 by date of report
• 
  Semi-log graph showing the total (cumulative) number of confirmed cases from the first reported date for the ten most affected countries
• 
  Semi-log plot of daily new cases of COVID-19 (7-day average) in the world and top five countries (mean with deaths)
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  Semi-log plot of cases in some countries with high growth rates (post-China) with three-day projections based on the exponential growth rates
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  7-day rolling average of daily confirmed cases per million by country.
• 
  Linear plot of worldwide COVID-19 cases, recoveries, and deaths
• 
  COVID-19 total cases per 100 000 population from selected countries

Deaths

Main articles: COVID-19 pandemic deaths and Mortality due to COVID-19

Further information: List of deaths due to coronavirus disease 2019

Deceased in a 16 m (53 ft) "mobile morgue" outside a hospital in Hackensack, New Jersey, United States on 27 April 2020

Most people who contract COVID-19 recover. For those who do not, the time between the onset of symptoms and death usually ranges from 6 to 41 days, typically about 14 days. As of 10 March 2023, approximately 6.88 million deaths had been attributed to COVID-19. In China, as of 5 February, about 80 per cent of deaths were recorded in those aged over 60, and 75 per cent had pre-existing health conditions including cardiovascular diseases and diabetes.

The first confirmed death was in Wuhan on 9 January 2020. The first death outside China occurred on 1 February in the Philippines, and the first death outside Asia was in France on 14 February.

Official deaths from COVID-19 generally refer to people who died after testing positive according to protocols. This may ignore deaths of people who die without testing, e.g. at home or in nursing homes. Conversely, deaths of people who had underlying conditions may lead to overcounting. Comparison of statistics for deaths for all causes versus the seasonal average indicates excess mortality in many countries. In the worst affected areas, mortality has been several times higher than average. In New York City, deaths have been four times higher than average, in Paris twice as high, and in many European countries deaths have been on average 20 to 30 per cent higher than normal. This excess mortality may include deaths due to strained healthcare systems and bans on elective surgery.

Several measures are used to quantify mortality. These numbers vary by region and over time, influenced by testing volume, healthcare system quality, treatment options, time since initial outbreak, and population characteristics, such as age, sex, and overall health. Some countries (like Belgium) include deaths from suspected cases of COVID-19, regardless of whether the person was tested, resulting in higher numbers compared to countries that include only test-confirmed cases.

The death-to-case ratio reflects the number of deaths attributed to COVID-19 divided by the number of diagnosed cases within a given time interval. Based on Johns Hopkins University statistics, the global death-to-case ratio is 1.02 per cent (6,881,955 deaths for 676,609,955 cases) as of 10 March 2023. The number varies by region.

Other measures include the case fatality rate (CFR), which reflects the percentage of diagnosed people who die from a disease, and the infection fatality rate (IFR), which reflects the percentage of infected (diagnosed and undiagnosed) who die from a disease. These statistics are not timebound and follow a specific population from infection through case resolution. Our World in Data states that as of 25 March 2020 the IFR cannot be accurately calculated as neither the total number of cases nor the total deaths, is known. In February the Institute for Disease Modeling estimated the IFR as 0.94% (95% confidence interval 0.37-2.9), based on data from China. The University of Oxford's Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine (CEBM) estimated a global CFR of 0.82 per cent and IFR of 0.1 per cent to 0.41 per cent, acknowledging that this will vary between populations due to differences in demographics.

• 
  Total confirmed deaths due to COVID-19 per million people
• 
  Semi-log plot of daily deaths due to COVID-19 (7-day average) in the world and top five countries (mean with cases)
• 
  Case fatality rate of COVID-19 by country and confirmed cases
• 
  Ongoing case fatality rate of COVID-19 by country
• 
  COVID-19 deaths per 100 000 population from selected countries

Duration

The WHO said on 11 March 2020 the pandemic could be controlled. The peak and ultimate duration of the outbreak are uncertain and may differ by location. Maciej Boni of Penn State University said, "Left unchecked, infectious outbreaks typically plateau and then start to decline when the disease runs out of available hosts. But it's almost impossible to make any sensible projection right now about when that will be." The Imperial College study led by Neil Ferguson stated that physical distancing and other measures will be required "until a vaccine becomes available (potentially 18 months or more)". William Schaffner of Vanderbilt University said because the coronavirus is "so readily transmissible", it "might turn into a seasonal disease, making a comeback every year". The virulence of the comeback would depend on herd immunity and the extent of mutation.

Signs and symptoms

See also: Coronavirus disease 2019

Symptoms of COVID-19

Symptoms of COVID-19 can be relatively non-specific and infected people may be asymptomatic. The two most common symptoms are fever (88 per cent) and dry cough (68 per cent). Less common symptoms include fatigue, respiratory sputum production (phlegm), loss of the sense of smell, loss of taste, shortness of breath, muscle and joint pain, sore throat, headache, chills, vomiting, coughing out blood, and diarrhea.

Approximately one in five people become seriously ill and has difficulty breathing. Emergency symptoms include difficulty breathing, persistent chest pain or pressure, sudden confusion, difficulty waking, and bluish face or lips; immediate medical attention is advised if these symptoms are present. Further development of the disease can lead to complications including pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome, sepsis, septic shock, and kidney failure.

Some infected people have no symptoms, known as asymptomatic or presymptomatic carriers. Transmission from such a carrier can occur. Health authorities have issued public notices that people with close contact to confirmed infected people should be quarantined and closely monitored. Chinese estimates of the asymptomatic ratio range from few to 44 per cent. The usual incubation period (the time between infection and symptom onset) ranges from one to 14 days, and is most commonly five days.

Cause

Transmission

Further information: Coronavirus disease 2019

Virology

Main article: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2

Illustration of SARSr‑CoV virion

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2) is a novel virus, first isolated from three people with pneumonia connected to the cluster of acute respiratory illness cases in Wuhan. All features of the novel SARS‑CoV‑2 virus occur in related coronaviruses in nature.

SARS‑CoV‑2 is closely related to SARS‑CoV, and is thought to have a zoonotic origin. SARS‑CoV‑2 genetically clusters with the genus Betacoronavirus, and is 96 per cent identical at the whole genome level to other bat coronavirus samples and 92 per cent identical to pangolin coronavirus.

Diagnosis

Main article: COVID-19 testing

Demonstration of a swab for COVID-19 testing

COVID-19 can be provisionally diagnosed on the basis of symptoms and confirmed using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) testing of infected secretions or CT imaging of the chest.

Viral testing

The standard test for current infection with SARS-CoV-2 uses RNA testing of respiratory secretions collected using a nasopharyngeal swab, though it is possible to test other samples. This test uses real-time rRT-PCR which detects presence of viral RNA fragments.

A number of laboratories and companies have developed serological tests, which detect antibodies produced by the body in response to infection. Several have been evaluated by Public Health England and approved for use in the UK.

Imaging

A CT scan of a person with COVID‑19 shows light patches in the lungs.

Characteristic imaging features on chest radiographs and computed tomography (CT) of people who are symptomatic include asymmetric peripheral ground-glass opacities without pleural effusions. The Italian Radiological Society is compiling an international online database of imaging findings for confirmed cases. Due to overlap with other infections such as adenovirus, imaging without confirmation by rRT-PCR is of limited specificity in identifying COVID-19. A large study in China compared chest CT results to PCR and demonstrated that though imaging is less specific for the infection, it is faster and more sensitive.

Prevention

Further information: Workplace hazard controls for COVID-19, Pandemic prevention, and preparations prior to COVID-19

Infographic by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), describing how to stop the spread of germs

Strategies for preventing transmission of the disease include maintaining overall good personal hygiene, washing hands, avoiding touching the eyes, nose, or mouth with unwashed hands, and coughing or sneezing into a tissue, and putting the tissue directly into a waste container. Those who may already have the infection have been advised to wear a surgical mask in public. Physical distancing measures are also recommended to prevent transmission. Health care providers taking care of someone who may be infected are recommended to use standard precautions, contact precautions, and eye protection.

Many governments have restricted or advised against all non-essential travel to and from countries and areas affected by the outbreak. The virus has already spread within communities in large parts of the world, with many not knowing where or how they were infected.

Misconceptions are circulating about how to prevent infection; for example, rinsing the nose and gargling with mouthwash are not effective. There is no COVID-19 vaccine, though many organisations are working to develop one.

Hand washing

Main article: Hand washing

Hand washing is recommended to prevent the spread of the disease. The CDC recommends that people wash hands often with soap and water for at least twenty seconds, especially after going to the toilet or when hands are visibly dirty; before eating; and after blowing one's nose, coughing, or sneezing. This is because outside the human body, the virus is killed by household soap, which bursts its protective bubble. CDC further recommended using an alcohol-based hand sanitiser with at least 60 per cent alcohol by volume when soap and water are not readily available. The WHO advises people to avoid touching the eyes, nose, or mouth with unwashed hands. It is not clear if washing hands with ash if soap is not available is effective at reducing the spread of viral infections.

Surface cleaning

Surfaces may be decontaminated with a number of solutions (within one minute of exposure to the disinfectant for a stainless steel surface), including 62–71 per cent ethanol, 50–100 per cent isopropanol, 0.1 per cent sodium hypochlorite, 0.5 per cent hydrogen peroxide, and 0.2–7.5 per cent povidone-iodine. Other solutions, such as benzalkonium chloride and chlorhexidine gluconate, are less effective. The CDC recommends that if a COVID-19 case is suspected or confirmed at a facility such as an office or day care, all areas such as offices, bathrooms, common areas, shared electronic equipment like tablets, touch screens, keyboards, remote controls, and ATM machines used by the ill persons, should be disinfected.

Face masks and respiratory hygiene

Main article: Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic

Taiwan President Tsai Ing-wen wearing a mask

Recommendations for wearing masks have been a subject of debate. The WHO has recommended healthy people wear masks only if they are at high risk, such as those who are caring for a person with COVID-19. China and the United States, among other countries, have encouraged the use of face masks or cloth face coverings more generally by members of the public to limit the spread of the virus by asymptomatic individuals as a precautionary principle. Several national and local governments have made wearing masks mandatory.

Surgical masks are recommended for those who may be infected, as wearing this type of mask can limit the volume and travel distance of expiratory droplets dispersed when talking, sneezing, and coughing.

Social distancing

Main article: Social distancing measures related to the COVID-19 pandemic

Physical distancing in Toronto, with a limited number of customers allowed inside a store

Social distancing (also known as physical distancing) includes infection control actions intended to slow the spread of disease by minimising close contact between individuals. Methods include quarantines; travel restrictions; and the closing of schools, workplaces, stadiums, theatres, or shopping centres. Individuals may apply social distancing methods by staying at home, limiting travel, avoiding crowded areas, using no-contact greetings, and physically distancing themselves from others. Many governments are now mandating or recommending social distancing in regions affected by the outbreak. Non-cooperation with distancing measures in some areas has contributed to the further spread of the pandemic.

The maximum gathering size recommended by U.S. government bodies and health organisations was swiftly reduced from 250 people (if there was no known COVID-19 spread in a region) to 50 people, and later to 10. On 22 March 2020, Germany banned public gatherings of more than two people. A Cochrane review found that early quarantine with other public health measures are effective in limiting the pandemic, but the best manner of adopting and relaxing policies are uncertain, as local conditions vary.

Older adults and those with underlying medical conditions such as diabetes, heart disease, respiratory disease, hypertension, and compromised immune systems face increased risk of serious illness and complications and have been advised by the CDC to stay home as much as possible in areas of community outbreak.

In late March 2020, the WHO and other health bodies began to replace the use of the term "social distancing" with "physical distancing", to clarify that the aim is to reduce physical contact while maintaining social connections, either virtually or at a distance. The use of the term "social distancing" had led to implications that people should engage in complete social isolation, rather than encouraging them to stay in contact through alternative means.

Some authorities have issued sexual health guidelines for use during the pandemic. These include recommendations to have sex only with someone you live with, and who does not have the virus or symptoms of the virus.

Self-isolation

Transmission of COVID-19 depends on many factors, including physical distance.

Self-isolation at home has been recommended for those diagnosed with COVID-19 and those who suspect they have been infected. Health agencies have issued detailed instructions for proper self-isolation.

Many governments have mandated or recommended self-quarantine for entire populations living in affected areas. The strongest self-quarantine instructions have been issued to those in high risk groups. Those who may have been exposed to someone with COVID-19 and those who have recently travelled to a country or region with widespread transmission have been advised to self-quarantine for 14 days from the time of last possible exposure.

Management

Further information: Coronavirus disease 2019 § Management, and Pandemic § Management

Containment and mitigation

Further information: Flatten the curve

Goals of mitigation include delaying and reducing peak burden on healthcare (flattening the curve) and lessening overall cases and health impact. Moreover, progressively greater increases in healthcare capacity (raising the line) such as by increasing bed count, personnel, and equipment, helps to meet increased demand.

Mitigation attempts that are inadequate in strictness or duration—such as premature relaxation of distancing rules or stay-at-home orders—can allow a resurgence after the initial surge and mitigation.

Strategies in the control of an outbreak are containment or suppression, and mitigation. Containment is undertaken in the early stages of the outbreak and aims to trace and isolate those infected as well as introduce other measures of infection control and vaccinations to stop the disease from spreading to the rest of the population. When it is no longer possible to contain the spread of the disease, efforts then move to the mitigation stage: measures are taken to slow the spread and mitigate its effects on the healthcare system and society. A combination of both containment and mitigation measures may be undertaken at the same time. Suppression requires more extreme measures so as to reverse the pandemic by reducing the basic reproduction number to less than 1.

Part of managing an infectious disease outbreak is trying to delay and decrease the epidemic peak, known as flattening the epidemic curve. This decreases the risk of health services being overwhelmed and provides more time for vaccines and treatments to be developed. Non-pharmaceutical interventions that may manage the outbreak include personal preventive measures such as hand hygiene, wearing face masks, and self-quarantine; community measures aimed at physical distancing such as closing schools and cancelling mass gathering events; community engagement to encourage acceptance and participation in such interventions; as well as environmental measures such surface cleaning.

More drastic actions aimed at containing the outbreak were taken in China once the severity of the outbreak became apparent, such as quarantining entire cities and imposing strict travel bans. Other countries also adopted a variety of measures aimed at limiting the spread of the virus. South Korea introduced mass screening and localised quarantines, and issued alerts on the movements of infected individuals. Singapore provided financial support for those infected who quarantined themselves and imposed large fines for those who failed to do so. Taiwan increased face mask production and penalised hoarding of medical supplies.

Simulations for Great Britain and the United States show that mitigation (slowing but not stopping epidemic spread) and suppression (reversing epidemic growth) have major challenges. Optimal mitigation policies might reduce peak healthcare demand by two-thirds and deaths by half, but still result in hundreds of thousands of deaths and overwhelmed health systems. Suppression can be preferred but needs to be maintained for as long as the virus is circulating in the human population (or until a vaccine becomes available), as transmission otherwise quickly rebounds when measures are relaxed. Long-term intervention to suppress the pandemic has considerable social and economic costs.

The researchers at Monash Venom Research Group found the peptide inside snakes' venom they were already looking at for Alzheimer’s disease may help in the fight, or future fights, against COVID-19. It binds to an enzyme called angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 which plays an important role in the cardiovascular system. Activating the enzyme also causes improvements in vascular function and it makes the blood vessels relax. This enzyme is also the receptor for COVID-19. Very early studies show it can stop the binding of proteins (the “spikes” in commonly seen images of the virus) to the cells. Although it is in very preliminary stage, but it shows a lot of promise.

Contact tracing

See also: Coronavirus disease 2019 § Information technology, and Government by algorithm

Contact tracing is an important method for health authorities to determine the source of an infection and to prevent further transmission. The use of location data from mobile phones by governments for this purpose has prompted privacy concerns, with Amnesty International and more than a hundred other organisations issuing a statement calling for limits on this kind of surveillance.

Several mobile apps have been implemented or proposed for voluntary use, and as of 7 April 2020 more than a dozen expert groups were working on privacy-friendly solutions such as using Bluetooth to log a user's proximity to other cellphones. Users could then receive a message if they've been in close contact with someone who has subsequently tested positive for COVID-19.

On 10 April 2020 Google and Apple jointly announced an initiative for privacy-preserving contact tracing based on Bluetooth technology and cryptography. The system is intended to allow governments to create official privacy-preserving coronavirus tracking apps, with the eventual goal of integration of this functionality directly into the iOS and Android mobile platforms. In Europe and in the U.S., Palantir Technologies is also providing COVID-19 tracking services.

Health care

Further information: Flatten the curve, list of countries by hospital beds, and Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic

An army-constructed field hospital outside Östra sjukhuset (Eastern hospital) in Gothenburg, Sweden, contains temporary intensive care units for COVID-19 patients.

Increasing capacity and adapting healthcare for the needs of COVID-19 patients is described by the WHO as a fundamental outbreak response measure. The ECDC and the European regional office of the WHO have issued guidelines for hospitals and primary healthcare services for shifting of resources at multiple levels, including focusing laboratory services towards COVID-19 testing, cancelling elective procedures whenever possible, separating and isolating COVID-19 positive patients, and increasing intensive care capabilities by training personnel and increasing the number of available ventilators and beds.

Due to capacity limitations in the standard supply chains, some manufacturers are 3D printing healthcare material such as nasal swabs and ventilator parts. In one example, when an Italian hospital urgently required a ventilator valve, and the supplier was unable to deliver in the timescale required, a local startup received legal threats due to alleged patent infringement and reverse-engineered and printed the required hundred valves overnight. On 23 April 2020, NASA reported building, in 37 days, a ventilator which is currently undergoing further testing. NASA is seeking fast-track approval.

Treatment

Antiviral medications are under investigation for COVID-19, as well as medications targeting the immune response. None has yet been shown to be clearly effective on mortality in published randomised controlled trials. However, remdesivir may have an effect on the time it takes to recover from the virus. Emergency use authorisation for remdesivir was granted in the U.S. on 1 May, for people hospitalised with severe COVID-19. The interim authorisation was granted considering the lack of other specific treatments, and that its potential benefits appear to outweigh the potential risks. Taking over-the-counter cold medications, drinking fluids, and resting may help alleviate symptoms. Depending on the severity, oxygen therapy, intravenous fluids, and breathing support may be required. The use of steroids may worsen outcomes. Several compounds which were previously approved for treatment of other viral diseases are being investigated for use in treating COVID-19.

History

Main article: Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic

Cases by country plotted on a logarithmic scale

The location of Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market

There are several theories about where the very first case (the so-called patient zero) originated. The first known case may trace back to 1 December 2019 in Wuhan, Hubei, China. Over the next month, the number of coronavirus cases in Hubei gradually increased. According to official Chinese sources, these were mostly linked to the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market, which also sold live animals.

On 24 December, Wuhan Central Hospital sent a bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BAL) sample from an unresolved clinical case to sequencing company Vision Medicals. On 27 and 28 December, Vision Medicals informed the Wuhan Central Hospital and the Chinese CDC of the results of the test, showing a new coronavirus. A pneumonia cluster of unknown cause was observed on 26 December and treated by the doctor Zhang Jixian in Hubei Provincial Hospital, who informed the Wuhan Jianghan CDC on 27 December. On 30 December, a test report addressed to Wuhan Central Hospital, from company CapitalBio Medlab, stated an erroneous positive result for SARS, causing a group of doctors at Wuhan Central Hospital to alert their colleagues and relevant hospital authorities of the result. That evening, the Wuhan Municipal Health Commission issued a notice to various medical institutions on "the treatment of pneumonia of unknown cause". Eight of these doctors, including Li Wenliang (punished on 3 January), were later admonished by the police for spreading false rumours, and another, Ai Fen, was reprimanded by her superiors for raising the alarm.

The Wuhan Municipal Health Commission made the first public announcement of a pneumonia outbreak of unknown cause on 31 December, confirming 27 cases—enough to trigger an investigation.

During the early stages of the outbreak, the number of cases doubled approximately every seven and a half days. In early and mid-January 2020, the virus spread to other Chinese provinces, helped by the Chinese New Year migration and Wuhan being a transport hub and major rail interchange. On 20 January, China reported nearly 140 new cases in one day, including two people in Beijing and one in Shenzhen. Later official data shows 6,174 people had already developed symptoms by then, and more may have been infected. A report in The Lancet on 24 January indicated human transmission, strongly recommended personal protective equipment for health workers, and said testing for the virus was essential due to its "pandemic potential". On 30 January, the WHO declared the coronavirus a public health emergency of international concern.

On 31 January 2020, Italy had its first confirmed cases, two tourists from China. As of 13 March 2020 the WHO considered Europe the active centre of the pandemic. On 19 March 2020, Italy overtook China as the country with the most deaths. By 26 March, the United States had overtaken China and Italy with the highest number of confirmed cases in the world. Research on coronavirus genomes indicates the majority of COVID-19 cases in New York came from European travellers, rather than directly from China or any other Asian country. Retesting of prior samples found a person in France who had the virus on 27 December 2019 and a person in the United States who died from the disease on 6 February 2020.

As of 15 May 2020, more than 676 million cases have been reported worldwide; more than 6.88 million people have died and more than have recovered.

National responses

Main articles: COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns, COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory, and National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic

Map of national and subnational lockdowns as of 30 March 2020 (table; more details)

  National lockdown

  Subnational lockdown

  No lockdown

A total of countries and territories have had at least one case of COVID-19 so far. Due to the pandemic in Europe, many countries in the Schengen Area have restricted free movement and set up border controls. National reactions have included containment measures such as quarantines and curfews (known as stay-at-home orders, shelter-in-place orders, or lockdowns).

By 26 March, 1.7 billion people worldwide were under some form of lockdown, which increased to 3.9 billion people by the first week of April—more than half the world's population.

By late April, around 300 million people were under lockdown in nations of Europe, including but not limited to Italy, Spain, France, and the United Kingdom, while around 200 million people were under lockdown in Latin America. Nearly 300 million people, or about 90 per cent of the population, were under some form of lockdown in the United States, around 100 million people in the Philippines, about 59 million people in South Africa, and 1.3 billion people have been under lockdown in India.

Asia

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in Asia

As of 30 April 2020, cases have been reported in all Asian countries except for Turkmenistan and North Korea, although some suspect these countries also have cases.

China

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China

Confirmed cases of COVID-19 per 100,000 inhabitants by province, as of 13 April, showing Hubei with around 40 times more cases than any other province

  Hubei Province: 114.40 cases per 100,000

  1.5–2.5 cases per 100,000

  1–1.5 cases per 100,000

  0.5–1 cases per 100,000

  >0–0.5 cases per 100,000

Semi-log graph of new cases and deaths in China during the COVID-19 epidemic showing the lockdown and lifting

The first confirmed case of COVID-19 has been traced back to 1 December 2019 in Wuhan; one unconfirmed report suggests the earliest case was on 17 November. Doctor Zhang Jixian observed a cluster of pneumonia cases of unknown cause on 26 December, upon which her hospital informed Wuhan Jianghan CDC on 27 December. Initial genetic testing of patient samples on 27 December 2019 indicated the presence of a SARS-like coronavirus. A public notice was released by Wuhan Municipal Health Commission on 31 December, confirming 27 cases and suggesting wearing face masks. The WHO was informed on the same day. As these notifications occurred, doctors in Wuhan were warned by police for "spreading rumours" about the outbreak. The Chinese National Health Commission initially said there was no "clear evidence" of human-to-human transmission. In a 14 January conference call, Chinese officials said privately that human-to-human transmission was a possibility, and pandemic preparations were needed. In a briefing posted during the night of 14–15 January, the Wuhan Municipal Health Commission said the possibility of limited human-to-human transmission could not be ruled out.

On 20 January, the Chinese National Health Commission announced that human-to-human transmission of the coronavirus had already occurred. That same day, Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping and State Council premier Li Keqiang issued their first public comments about the virus, telling people in infected areas to practice social distancing and avoid travel. During the Chinese New Year travel period, authorities instigated a City of Wuhan lockdown. On 10 February, since Wuhan travellers already transported the virus to some Asian countries, the Chinese government launched a radical campaign described by paramount leader and Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi as a "people's war" to contain the viral spread. In "the largest quarantine in human history", a cordon sanitaire on 23 January stopped travel in and out of Wuhan, then extended to fifteen Hubei cities affecting about 57 million people. Private vehicle use was banned in the city. Several Chinese New Year (25 January) celebrations were also cancelled. Authorities announced the construction of a temporary hospital, Huoshenshan Hospital, completed in ten days. Leishenshan Hospital, was later built to handle additional patients. China also converted other facilities in Wuhan, such as convention centres and stadiums, into temporary hospitals.

Wuhan Leishenshan Hospital, an emergency speciality field hospital built in response to the pandemic

A temporary hospital for treating mild cases of COVID-19 in Wuhan, one of more than ten such hospitals in the city

On 26 January, the government instituted further measures to contain the COVID-19 outbreak, including issuing health declarations for travellers and extending the Spring Festival holiday. Universities and schools around the country were also closed. The regions of Hong Kong and Macau instituted several measures, particularly in regard to schools and universities. Remote working measures were instituted in several Chinese regions. Travel restrictions were enacted in and outside of Hubei. Public transport was modified, and museums throughout China were temporarily closed. Control of public movement was applied in many cities, and it has been estimated that 760 million people (more than half the population) faced some form of outdoor restriction. In January and February 2020, during the height of the epidemic in Wuhan, about 5 million people lost their jobs. Many of China's nearly 300 million rural migrant workers have been stranded at home in inland provinces or trapped in Hubei province.

After the outbreak entered its global phase in March, Chinese authorities took strict measures to prevent the virus re-entering China from other countries. For example, Beijing imposed a 14-day mandatory quarantine for all international travellers entering the city. At the same time, a strong anti-foreigner sentiment quickly took hold, and foreigners experienced harassment by the general public and forced evictions from apartments and hotels.

On 23 March 2020, China had only one case transmitted domestically in the five days prior, in this instance via a traveller returning to Guangzhou from Istanbul. On 24 March, Chinese Premier Li Keqiang reported that the spread of domestically transmitted cases has been basically blocked and the outbreak has been controlled in China. The same day travel restrictions were eased in Hubei, apart from Wuhan, two months after the lockdown was imposed.

The Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced on 26 March that entry for visa or residence permit holders would be suspended from 28 March onwards, with no specific details on when this policy would end. Those wishing to enter China must to apply for visas in Chinese embassies or consulates. The Chinese government encouraged businesses and factories to re-open on 30 March, and provided monetary stimulus packages for firms.

The State Council declared a day of mourning to begin with a national three-minute moment of silence on 4 April, coinciding with Qingming Festival, although the central government asked families to pay their respects online in observance of physical distancing to avoid a renewed COVID-19 outbreak. On 25 April the last patients were discharged in Wuhan. On 13 May the city of Jilin was put on lockdown, sparking fear of a second wave of infection.

Iran

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in Iran

Disinfection of Tehran Metro trains against coronavirus. Similar measures have also been taken in other countries.

Iran reported its first confirmed cases of SARS‑CoV‑2 infections on 19 February in Qom, where, according to the Ministry of Health and Medical Education, two people died later that day. Early measures announced by the government included the cancellation of concerts and other cultural events, sporting events, and Friday prayers, and closures of universities, higher education institutions, and schools. Iran allocated 5 trillion rials (equivalent to US$120,000,000) to combat the virus. President Hassan Rouhani said on 26 February 2020 there were no plans to quarantine areas affected by the outbreak, and only individuals would be quarantined. Plans to limit travel between cities were announced in March, although heavy traffic between cities ahead of the Persian New Year Nowruz continued. Shia shrines in Qom remained open to pilgrims until 16 March.

Iran became a centre of the spread of the virus after China during February. More than ten countries had traced their cases back to Iran by 28 February, indicating the outbreak may have been more severe than the 388 cases reported by the Iranian government by that date. The Iranian Parliament was shut down, with 23 of its 290 members reported to have had tested positive for the virus on 3 March. On 15 March, the Iranian government reported a hundred deaths in a single day, the most recorded in the country since the outbreak began. At least twelve sitting or former Iranian politicians and government officials had died from the disease by 17 March. By 23 March, Iran was experiencing fifty new cases every hour and one new death every ten minutes due to coronavirus. According to a WHO official, there may be five times more cases in Iran than what is being reported. It is also suggested that U.S. sanctions on Iran may be affecting the country's financial ability to respond to the viral outbreak. The UN High Commissioner for Human Rights has demanded economic sanctions to be eased for nations most affected by the pandemic, including Iran. On 20 April it was reported that Iran had reopened shopping malls and other shopping areas across the country, though there is fear of a second wave of infection due to this move. In March and again in April, there were reports that Iran was under-reporting COVID-19 cases and deaths. On 27 April it was reported that 700 people had died from ingesting methanol, falsely believed to be a cure.

South Korea

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea

A drive-through test centre at the Gyeongju Public Health Centre

COVID-19 was confirmed to have spread to South Korea on 20 January 2020 from China. The nation's health agency reported a significant increase in confirmed cases on 20 February, largely attributed to a gathering in Daegu of the Shincheonji Church of Jesus. Shincheonji devotees visiting Daegu from Wuhan were suspected to be the origin of the outbreak. As of 22 February, among 9,336 followers of the church, 1,261 or about 13 per cent reported symptoms.

South Korea declared the highest level of alert on 23 February 2020. On 28 February, more than 2,000 confirmed cases were reported, rising to 3,150 on 29 February. All South Korean military bases were quarantined after tests showed three soldiers had the virus. Airline schedules were also changed.

A banner in Seoul displays coronavirus infection prevention tips.

South Korea introduced what was considered the largest and best-organised programme in the world to screen the population for the virus, isolate any infected people, and trace and quarantine those who contacted them. Screening methods included mandatory self-reporting of symptoms by new international arrivals through mobile application, drive-through testing for the virus with the results available the next day, and increasing testing capability to allow up to 20,000 people to be tested every day. South Korea's programme is considered a success in controlling the outbreak without quarantining entire cities.

South Korean society was initially polarised on President Moon Jae-in's response to the crisis, many signing petitions either praising it or calling for impeachment. On 23 March, it was reported that South Korea had the lowest one-day case total in four weeks. On 29 March it was reported that beginning 1 April all new overseas arrivals will be quarantined for two weeks. Per media reports on 1 April, South Korea has received requests for virus testing assistance from 121 different countries. On 15 May it was reported that about 2,000 businesses were told to close again when a cluster of 100 COVID-19 infected individuals was discovered, contact tracing is being done on 11,000 people.

Europe

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in Europe

Confirmed cases of SARS‑CoV‑2 infected people in relation to the population of the country (cases per million inhabitants). The numbers are not comparable, as the testing strategy differs among countries and time periods.

This section is an excerpt from COVID-19 pandemic in Europe.[edit]

The global COVID-19 pandemic arrived in Europe with its first confirmed case in Bordeaux, France, on 24 January 2020, and subsequently spread widely across the continent. By 17 March 2020, every country in Europe had confirmed a case, and all have reported at least one death, with the exception of Vatican City.

Italy was the first European country to experience a major outbreak in early 2020, becoming the first country worldwide to introduce a national lockdown. By 13 March 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared Europe the epicentre of the pandemic and it remained so until the WHO announced it was overtaken by South America on 22 May. By 18 March 2020, lockdowns introduced in Europe affected more than 250 million people. Despite deployment of COVID-19 vaccines, Europe became the pandemic's epicentre once again in late 2021. On 11 January 2022, Dr. Hans Kluge, the WHO Regional Director for Europe said, "more than 50 percent of the population in the region will be infected with Omicron in the next six to eight weeks".

As the outbreak became a major crisis across Europe, national and European Union responses have led to debate over restrictions of civil liberties and the extent of European Union solidarity.

As of 20 May 2022, Europe is the most affected continent in the world. Most affected countries in Europe include France, Germany, the United Kingdom and Russia.

Italy

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in Italy

The outbreak was confirmed to have spread to Italy on 31 January, when two Chinese tourists tested positive for SARS‑CoV‑2 in Rome. Cases began to rise sharply, which prompted the Italian government to suspend all flights to and from China and declare a state of emergency. An unassociated cluster of COVID-19 cases was later detected, starting with 16 confirmed cases in Lombardy on 21 February.

Civil Protection volunteers carry out health checks at the Guglielmo Marconi Airport in Bologna on 5 February.

On 22 February, the Council of Ministers announced a new decree-law to contain the outbreak, including quarantining more than 50,000 people from eleven different municipalities in northern Italy. Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte said, "In the outbreak areas, entry and exit will not be provided. Suspension of work activities and sports events has already been ordered in those areas."

On 4 March, the Italian government ordered the full closure of all schools and universities nationwide as Italy reached a hundred deaths. All major sporting events, including Serie A football matches, were to be held behind closed doors until April, but on 9 March, all sport was suspended completely for at least one month. On 11 March, Prime Minister Conte ordered stoppage of nearly all commercial activity except supermarkets and pharmacies.

On 6 March, the Italian College of Anaesthesia, Analgesia, Resuscitation and Intensive Care (SIAARTI) published medical ethics recommendations regarding triage protocols. On 19 March, Italy overtook China as the country with the most coronavirus-related deaths in the world after reporting 3,405 fatalities from the pandemic. On 22 March, it was reported that Russia had sent nine military planes with medical equipment to Italy. As of 9 May, there were 217,185 confirmed cases, 30,201 deaths, and 99,023 recoveries in Italy, with the majority of those cases occurring in the Lombardy region. A CNN report indicated that the combination of Italy's large elderly population and inability to test all who have the virus to date may be contributing to the high fatality rate. On 19 April it was reported that the country had its lowest deaths at 433 in seven days, some businesses after six weeks of lockdown are asking for a loosening of restrictions.

Spain

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in Spain

Residents of Valencia, Spain, maintaining social distancing while queueing

This section is an excerpt from COVID-19 pandemic in Spain.[edit]

The COVID-19 pandemic in Spain has resulted in 13,980,340 confirmed cases of COVID-19 and 121,852 deaths.

The virus was first confirmed to have spread to Spain on 31 January 2020, when a German tourist tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 in La Gomera, Canary Islands. Post-hoc genetic analysis has shown that at least 15 strains of the virus had been imported, and community transmission began by mid-February. By 13 March, cases had been confirmed in all 50 provinces of the country.

A partially unconstitutional lockdown was imposed on 14 March 2020. On 29 March, it was announced that, beginning the following day, all non-essential workers were ordered to remain at home for the next 14 days. By late March, the Community of Madrid has recorded the most cases and deaths in the country. Medical professionals and those who live in retirement homes have experienced especially high infection rates. On 25 March, the official death toll in Spain surpassed that of mainland China. On 2 April, 950 people died of the virus in a 24-hour period—at the time, the most by any country in a single day. On 17 May, the daily death toll announced by the Spanish government fell below 100 for the first time, and 1 June was the first day without deaths by COVID-19. The state of alarm ended on 21 June. However, the number of cases increased again in July in a number of cities including Barcelona, Zaragoza and Madrid, which led to reimposition of some restrictions but no national lockdown.

Studies have suggested that the number of infections and deaths may have been underestimated due to lack of testing and reporting, and many people with only mild or no symptoms were not tested. Reports in May suggested that, based on a sample of more than 63,000 people, the number of infections may be ten times higher than the number of confirmed cases by that date, and Madrid and several provinces of Castilla–La Mancha and Castile and León were the most affected areas with a percentage of infection greater than 10%. There may also be as many as 15,815 more deaths according to the Spanish Ministry of Health monitoring system on daily excess mortality (Sistema de Monitorización de la Mortalidad Diaria – MoMo). On 6 July 2020, the results of a Government of Spain nationwide seroprevalence study showed that about two million people, or 5.2% of the population, could have been infected during the pandemic. Spain was the second country in Europe (behind Russia) to record half a million cases. On 21 October, Spain passed 1 million COVID-19 cases, with 1,005,295 infections and 34,366 deaths reported, a third of which occurred in Madrid.

As of September 2021, Spain is one of the countries with the highest percentage of its population vaccinated (76% fully vaccinated and 79% with the first dose), while also being one of the countries more in favor of vaccines against COVID-19 (nearly 94% of its population is already vaccinated or wants to be).

As of 4 February 2023, a total of 112,304,453 vaccine doses have been administered.

Russia

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in Russia

The COVID-19 pandemic spread to Russia on 31 January 2020, when two Chinese citizens in Tyumen, Siberia and Chita, Russian Far East tested positive for the virus, with both cases being contained. Early prevention measures included restricting the border with China and extensive testing. The infection spread from Italy on 2 March, leading to additional measures such as cancelling events, closing schools, theatres and museums, shutting the border, and declaring a non-working period which lasted up to 11 May, having been extended twice. By the end of March, lockdowns were imposed in the vast majority of federal subjects, including Moscow. By 17 April, cases were confirmed in all federal subjects. On 27 April, the number of confirmed cases surpassed those in China and on 30 April, it surpassed 100,000.

As of 16 May, Russia has 272,043 confirmed cases, 63,166 recoveries, 2,537 deaths, and over 6.6 million tests performed, ranking second in number of confirmed cases.The city of Moscow is currently the most affected federal subject, having the majority of confirmed cases.

United Kingdom

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom

The "Wee Annie" statue in Gourock, Scotland was given a face mask during the pandemic

Before 18 March 2020, the British government did not impose any form of social distancing or mass quarantine measures on its citizens. As a result, the government received criticism for the perceived lack of pace and intensity in its response to concerns faced by the public.

On 16 March, Prime Minister Boris Johnson made an announcement advising against all non-essential travel and social contact, suggesting people work from home where possible and avoid venues such as pubs, restaurants, and theatres. On 20 March, the government announced that all leisure establishments such as pubs and gyms were to close as soon as possible, and promised to pay up to 80 per cent of workers' wages to a limit of £2,500 per month to prevent unemployment during the crisis.

On 23 March, the prime minister announced tougher social distancing measures, banning gatherings of more than two people and restricting travel and outdoor activity to that deemed strictly necessary. Unlike previous measures, these restrictions were enforceable by police through the issuing of fines and the dispersal of gatherings. Most businesses were ordered to close, with exceptions for businesses deemed "essential", including supermarkets, pharmacies, banks, hardware shops, petrol stations, and garages.

On 24 April it was reported that one of the more promising vaccine trials had begun in England; the government has pledged, in total, more than 50 million pounds towards research.

To ensure the UK health services had sufficient capacity to treat people with COVID-19, a number of temporary critical care hospitals were built. The first to be operational was the 4000-bed capacity NHS Nightingale Hospital London, constructed within the ExCeL convention centre over nine days. On 4 May, it was announced that the Nightingale Hospital in London would be placed on standby and remaining patients transferred to other facilities. This comes after reports that NHS Nightingale in London "treated 51 patients" within the first three weeks of opening. On 5 May, official figures revealed that Britain had the worst COVID-19 death toll in Europe, prompting calls for an inquiry into the handling of the pandemic. The death toll in the United Kingdom was nearly 29,427 for those tested positive for the virus. Later, it was calculated at 32,313, after taking the official death count for Scotland and Northern Ireland into account.

France

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in France

File:Strasbourg-Entzheim, évacuation patients COVID-19 par un hélicoptère de l'armée de terre (NH90 immatriculation EAX) - 3.jpg

France has been transferring COVID-19 patients from overloaded hospitals to ones in other regions via military helicopters, as seen here at Strasbourg Airport.

Although it was originally thought the pandemic reached France on 24 January 2020, when the first COVID-19 case in Europe was confirmed in Bordeaux, it was later discovered that a person near Paris had tested positive for the virus on 27 December 2019 after retesting old samples. A key event in the spread of the disease in the country was the annual assembly of the Christian Open Door Church between 17 and 24 February in Mulhouse, which was attended by about 2,500 people, at least half of whom are believed to have contracted the virus.

On 13 March, Prime Minister Édouard Philippe ordered the closure of all non-essential public places, and on 16 March, French President Emmanuel Macron announced mandatory home confinement, a policy which has been extended at least until 11 May. As of 23 April, France has reported more than 120,804 confirmed cases, 21,856 deaths, and 42,088 recoveries, ranking fourth in number of confirmed cases. In April, there were riots in some Paris suburbs.

North America

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in North America

Map last updated: December 2020

  <500 confirmed cases

  500–1,000

  1,000–2,000

  2,000–5,000

  5,000–10,000

  10,000–50,000

  50,000–100,000

  100,000–200,000

  >200,000 confirmed cases

The first cases of the COVID-19 pandemic of Coronavirus Disease 2019 in North America were reported in the United States on 23 January 2020. Cases were reported in all North American countries after Saint Kitts and Nevis confirmed a case on 25 March, and in all North American territories after Bonaire confirmed a case on 16 April.

On 26 March 2020, the United States became the country in North America with the highest number of confirmed COVID-19 infections, at over 82,000 cases. On 11 April 2020, the United States became the country in North America with the highest official death toll for COVID-19, at over 20,000 deaths. As of 10 April 2022, there are about 97 million cases and about 1.4 million deaths in North America; about 88.9 million have recovered from COVID-19, meaning that nearly 11 out of 12 cases have recovered or that the recovery rate is nearly 92%.

As of 10 April 2022, the United States has had the highest number of cases in North America, at about 82 million cases, as well as the highest death toll, at over a million deaths. There have been nearly 75.7 million recoveries in the United States as of 10 April 2022, meaning that nearly 12 out of 13 cases in the country have recovered or that the recovery rate is about 92%. On 20 March 2022, the number of COVID-19 deaths in the United States exceeded a million.

As of 10 April 2022, Canada has reported nearly 3.6 million cases and about 38,000 deaths, while Mexico, which was overtaken in terms of the number of cases on 11 March 2022, the second anniversary of the day when the COVID-19 outbreak became a pandemic, by Japan, the second most affected country in East Asia, has reported about 5.7 million cases and about 320,000 deaths. The state in the United States with the highest number of cases and the highest death toll is California, at about 9.1 million cases and nearly 90,000 deaths as of 10 April 2022.

United States

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in the United States

Confirmed cases of COVID-19 per million inhabitants by state, as of 3 May 2020

On 20 January, the first known case of COVID-19 was confirmed in the Pacific Northwest state of Washington in a man who had returned from Wuhan on 15 January. On 31 January, the Trump administration declared a public health emergency, and restricted entry for travellers from China who were not U.S. citizens.

On 28 January 2020, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention—the leading public health institute of the U.S. government—announced they had developed their own testing kit. Despite this, the United States had a slow start in testing, which obscured the extent of the outbreak. Testing was marred by defective test kits produced by the government in February, a lack of federal approval for non-government test kits (by academia, companies, and hospitals) until the end of February, and restrictive criteria for people to qualify for a test.

After the first death in the United States was reported in Washington state on 29 February, Governor Jay Inslee declared a state of emergency, an action soon followed by other states. By mid-March, schools across the country were shutting down.

Donald Trump signs the Coronavirus Preparedness and Response Supplemental Appropriations Act into law with Alex Azar on 6 March 2020.

On 6 March 2020, the United States was advised of projections for the impact of the new coronavirus on the country by a group of scientists at Imperial College London. On the same day, President Trump signed the Coronavirus Preparedness and Response Supplemental Appropriations Act, which provided $8.3 billion in emergency funding for federal agencies to respond to the outbreak. Corporations encouraged employees to work from home. Sports events and seasons were cancelled.

On 11 and 12 March, Trump announced travel restrictions for most of Europe for 30 days, including the United Kingdom and Ireland. On 13 March, he declared a national emergency, which made federal funds available to respond to the crisis. Beginning on 15 March, many businesses closed or reduced hours throughout the U.S. to try to reduce the spread of the virus. By 17 March, the epidemic had been confirmed in all fifty states and in the District of Columbia.On 26 March, the United States had more confirmed cases than any other country. U.S. federal health inspectors surveyed 323 hospitals in late March; reporting "severe shortages" of test supplies, "widespread shortages" of personal protective equipment (PPE), and other strained resources due to extended patient stays while awaiting test results.

The hospital ship USNS Comfort arrived in Manhattan on 30 March

As of 24 April, 889,309 cases have been confirmed in the United States, and 50,256 people have died. On 30 March, Trump extended social distancing guidelines until 30 April. On the same day, the USNS Comfort, a hospital ship with about a thousand beds, made anchor in New York. On 3 April, the U.S. had a record 884 deaths due to the virus in a 24-hour period. In the state of New York, cases exceeded 100,000 people on 3 April.

The White House has been criticised for downplaying the threat and controlling the messaging by directing health officials and scientists to coordinate public statements and publications related to the virus with the office of Vice-President Mike Pence. Some U.S. officials and commentators criticised U.S. reliance on importation of critical materials, including essential medical supplies, from China.

On 14 April, President Trump halted funding to the World Health Organization, saying they had mismanaged the pandemic. In late April, Trump said he would sign an executive order to temporarily suspend immigration to the United States because of the pandemic. On 22 April, U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo said on Fox News that China had denied U.S. scientists permission to enter the country to ascertain the origin of the current pandemic, but did not give details of any requests for such visits. On 22 April it was reported that two Californians had died from the virus (not, as previously thought, influenza) on 6 and 17 February, three weeks before the first official COVID-19 death in the U.S. had been acknowledged.

South America

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in South America

Workers being trained to disinfect buses in Olinda, Pernambuco, Brazil, 16 March 2020

The pandemic was confirmed to have reached South America on 26 February 2020 when Brazil confirmed a case in São Paulo. By 3 April, all countries and territories in South America had recorded at least one case.

On 13 May 2020, it was reported that Latin America and the Caribbean had reported over 400,000 cases of COVID-19 infection with, 23,091 deaths. On 22 May 2020, citing the rapid increase of infections in Brazil, the WHO declared South America the epicentre of the pandemic.

As of 12 January 2023, South America had recorded 67,331,547 confirmed cases and 1,344,031 deaths from COVID-19. Due to a shortage of testing and medical facilities, it is believed that the outbreak is far larger than the official numbers show.

Africa

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in Africa

See also: National responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in Africa

Confirmed cases in Africa as of 23 May 2021

  1–99 confirmed cases

  100–999 confirmed cases

  1,000–9,999 confirmed cases

  10,000–99,999 confirmed cases

  100,000+ confirmed cases

The pandemic was confirmed to have spread to Africa on 14 February 2020, with the first confirmed case announced in Egypt. The first confirmed case in sub-Saharan Africa was announced in Nigeria at the end of February 2020. Within three months, the virus had spread throughout the continent, as Lesotho, the last African sovereign state to have remained free of the virus, reported a case on 13 May 2020. By 26 May, it appeared that most African countries were experiencing community transmission, although testing capacity was limited. Most of the identified imported cases arrived from Europe and the United States rather than from China where the virus originated.

In early June 2021, Africa faced a third wave of COVID infections with cases rising in 14 countries. By 4 July the continent recorded more than 251,000 new Covid cases, a 20% increase from the prior week and a 12% increase from the January peak. More than sixteen African countries, including Malawi and Senegal, recorded an uptick in new cases. The World Health Organization labelled it Africa's 'Worst Pandemic Week Ever'.

The government of Egypt denied January 2021 allegations that the shortage of oxygen had killed several COVID-19 patients at one of its hospitals. However, an investigation led by The New York Times confirmed that the authorities had lied. The video of one of Egypt's hospitals treating critical patients using manual ventilation methods went viral on Facebook. The video was posted by Ahmed Nafei, the nephew of a 62-year-old woman who died. In addition, the relatives of the dead patients and the El Husseineya Central Hospital's medical staff also confirmed in an interview given to The New York Times that the cause of death had been the shortage of oxygen.

Oceania

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic in Oceania

This section is an excerpt from COVID-19 pandemic in Oceania.[edit]

The COVID-19 pandemic was confirmed to have reached Oceania on 25 January 2020 with the first confirmed case reported in Melbourne, Australia. The virus has spread to all sovereign states and territories in the region. Australia and New Zealand were praised for their handling of the pandemic in comparison to other Western nations, with New Zealand and each state in Australia wiping out all community transmission of the virus several times even after re-introduction in the community.

As a result of the high transmissibility of the Delta variant however, by August 2021, the Australian states of New South Wales and Victoria had conceded defeat in their eradication efforts. In early October 2021, New Zealand also abandoned its elimination strategy.

International responses

Further information: Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic

Travel restrictions

Main article: Travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic

As a result of the pandemic, many countries and regions imposed quarantines, entry bans, or other restrictions, either for citizens, recent travellers to affected areas, or for all travellers. Together with a decreased willingness to travel, this had a negative economic and social impact on the travel sector. Concerns have been raised over the effectiveness of travel restrictions to contain the spread of COVID-19. A study in Science found that travel restrictions had only modest effects delaying the initial spread of COVID-19, unless combined with infection prevention and control measures to considerably reduce transmissions. Researchers concluded that "travel restrictions are most useful in the early and late phase of an epidemic" and "restrictions of travel from Wuhan unfortunately came too late".

The European Union rejected the idea of suspending the Schengen free travel zone and introducing border controls with Italy, a decision which has been criticised by some European politicians.

Evacuation of foreign citizens

Main article: Evacuations related to the COVID-19 pandemic

Ukraine evacuates Ukrainian and foreign citizens from Wuhan, China.

Owing to the effective quarantine of public transport in Wuhan and Hubei, several countries evacuated their citizens and diplomatic staff from the area, primarily through chartered flights of the home nation, with Chinese authorities providing clearance. Canada, the United States, Japan, India, Sri Lanka, Australia, France, Argentina, Germany, and Thailand were among the first to plan the evacuation of their citizens. Brazil and New Zealand also evacuated their own nationals and some other people. On 14 March, South Africa repatriated 112 South Africans who tested negative for the virus from Wuhan, while four who showed symptoms were left behind to mitigate risk. Pakistan said it would not evacuate citizens from China.

On 15 February, the U.S. announced it would evacuate Americans aboard the cruise ship Diamond Princess, and on 21 February, Canada evacuated 129 Canadian passengers from the ship. In early March, the Indian government began evacuating its citizens from Iran. On 20 March, the United States began to partially withdraw its troops from Iraq due to the pandemic.

International aid

Aid to China

File:Digital billboard in Shibuya expressing support against coronavirus.jpg

Digital billboard conveying support with the words "Be Strong China" in various languages in Shibuya, Tokyo on 10 February 2020

On 5 February, the Chinese foreign ministry said 21 countries (including Belarus, Pakistan, Trinidad and Tobago, Egypt, and Iran) had sent aid to China. Some Chinese students at American universities joined together to help send aid to virus-stricken parts of China, with a joint group in the greater Chicago area reportedly managing to send 50,000 N95 masks to hospitals in the Hubei province on 30 January.

The humanitarian aid organisation Direct Relief, in coordination with FedEx, sent 200,000 face masks along with other personal protective equipment, including gloves and gowns, by emergency airlift to the Wuhan Union Hospital by 30 January. On 5 February, Bill and Melinda Gates announced a $100 million donation to the WHO to fund vaccine research and treatment efforts along with protecting "at-risk populations in Africa and South Asia". Interaksyon reported that the Chinese government had donated 200,000 masks to the Philippines on 6 February after Philippine senator Richard Gordon shipped 3.16 million masks to Wuhan. On 19 February, the Singapore Red Cross announced it would send $2.26 million worth of aid to China.

File:Azadi Tower lights in support of China against coronavirus 2.jpg

Tehran's Azadi Tower lights in the colours of the flag of China

Several countries donated masks, medical equipment or money to China, including Japan, Turkey, Russia, Malaysia (18 million medical gloves), Germany, and Canada. The U.S. State Department said on 7 February it had facilitated the transportation of nearly 17.8 tons of medical supplies to China, including masks, gowns, gauze, respirators, and other materials. On the same day, U.S. Secretary of State Pompeo announced a $100 million pledge to China and other countries to aid their fights against the virus, though on 21 March China said it had not received epidemic funding from the U.S. government and reiterated that on 3 April. Several corporations have also donated money or medical equipment to China.

Aid to the globe

Medical supplies donated by China being received at Villamor Air Base in the Philippines

After cases in China stabilised, the country began sending aid to other nations. In March, China, Cuba and Russia sent medical supplies and experts to help Italy deal with its coronavirus outbreak; China sent three medical teams and donated more than forty tons of medical supplies to Italy. The Spectator USA, citing an unnamed senior Trump administration official, said China had sold back to Italy the same PPE Italy had donated to China. Businessman Jack Ma sent 1.1 million testing kits, 6 million face masks, and 60,000 protective suits to Addis Ababa, Ethiopia for distribution by the African Union. He later sent 5,000 testing kits, 100,000 face masks and 5 ventilators to Panama.

The Netherlands, Spain, Turkey, Georgia, and the Czech Republic expressed their concerns over Chinese-made masks and test kits. For instance, Spain withdrew 58,000 Chinese-made coronavirus testing kits with an accuracy rate of 30 per cent, while the Netherlands recalled 600,000 Chinese face masks which were said to defective, yet this could have been due to product misuse. Belgium recalled 100,000 unusable masks, thought to be from China, but were in fact from Colombia. The Philippines stopped using test kits donated by China due to their 40 per cent accuracy. The Chinese government said product instructions might not have been followed, and that some products were not purchased directly from certified companies. However, Chinese aid was well-received in parts of Latin America and Africa. On 2 April, the World Bank launched emergency support operations for developing countries. According to a statement from Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Turkey provides the largest amount of humanitarian aid in the world while ranking third worldwide in supplying medical aid.

WHO response measures

Main article: World Health Organization's response to the COVID-19 pandemic

The WHO has commended Chinese authorities, noting the contrast between the 2002–2004 SARS outbreak when they were accused of secrecy and the current crisis where the central government "has provided regular updates". Critics have said the WHO handled the pandemic inadequately, the public health emergency declaration and pandemic classification coming too late.

December 2019

China and Taiwan both notified the WHO of a new virus on 31 December 2019. Taiwan and the WHO later got into a dispute about the content of Taiwan's message and the WHO's lack of response to the state, which is not a WHO observer due to diplomatic pressure from China.

January 2020

WHO Director-General Tedros Adhanom

The WHO stated on 5 January 2020 that cases of pneumonia of unknown cause had been reported, and issued its technical briefings on 10 and 11 January, warning of a strong possibility of human-to-human transmission and urging precautions due to the similarity to earlier SARS and MERS outbreaks. although in public announcements it said there was "no clear evidence of human-to-human transmission" as late as 14 January. On 20 January, the WHO said it was "now very clear" that human-to-human transmission of the coronavirus had occurred, given that healthcare workers had been infected. On 27 January, the WHO assessed the risk of the outbreak to be "high at the global level".

On 30 January, the WHO declared the outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC), warning that "all countries should be prepared for containment, including active surveillance, early detection, isolation and case management, contact tracing and prevention of onward spread" of the virus. The announcement came after an increase in the number of cases outside China. This was the sixth-ever PHEIC since the measure was first invoked during the 2009 swine flu pandemic. WHO Director-General Tedros Adhanom said the PHEIC was due to "the risk of global spread, especially to low- and middle-income countries without robust health systems [and] there is no reason for measures that unnecessarily interfere with international travel and trade. [The WHO] doesn't recommend limiting trade and movement. We call on all countries to implement decisions that are evidence-based and consistent."

February 2020

WHO representatives with Tehran city managers

On 11 February, the WHO in a press conference established COVID-19 as the name of the disease. On the same day, Tedros said UN Secretary-General António Guterres agreed to provide the "power of the entire UN system in the response". A UN Crisis Management Team was then activated, allowing coordination of the entire United Nations, which the WHO stated will allow them to "focus on the health response while the other agencies can bring their expertise to bear on the wider social, economic and developmental implications of the outbreak".

On 25 February, the WHO declared "the world should do more to prepare for a possible coronavirus pandemic," stating that while it was too early to call it a pandemic, countries should be "in a phase of preparedness".

On 28 February, WHO officials said the coronavirus threat assessment at the global level would be raised from "high" to "very high", its highest level of alert and risk assessment. Mike Ryan, executive director of the WHO's health emergencies program, warned that "this is a reality check for every government on the planet: Wake up. Get ready. This virus may be on its way and you need to be ready," urging that the right response measures could help avert "the worst of it". Ryan stated that current data did not warrant public health officials to declare a global pandemic, saying such a declaration would mean "we're essentially accepting that every human on the planet will be exposed to that virus."

March 2020

On 11 March, the WHO declared the coronavirus outbreak a pandemic. The Director-General said the WHO was "deeply concerned both by the alarming levels of spread and severity, and by the alarming levels of inaction".

Impact

Main article: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic

Further information: Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic

Economics

Main article: Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic

See also: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on aviation, on science and technology, on financial markets, 2020 stock market crash, and Coronavirus recession

"Those who can, put something in; those who can't, help yourself." Bologna, April 2020.

A highway sign on the Gardiner Expressway in Toronto discouraging non-essential travel.

The outbreak is a major destabilising threat to the global economy. Agathe Demarais of the Economist Intelligence Unit has forecast that markets will remain volatile until a clearer image emerges on potential outcomes. One estimate from an expert at Washington University in St. Louis gave a $300+ billion impact on the world's supply chain that could last up to two years. Global stock markets fell on 24 February due to a significant rise in the number of COVID-19 cases outside China. On 27 February, due to mounting worries about the coronavirus outbreak, U.S. stock indexes posted their sharpest falls since 2008, with the Dow falling 1,191 points (the largest one-day drop since the financial crisis of 2007–08) and all three major indexes ending the week down more than 10 per cent. On 28 February, Scope Ratings GmbH affirmed China's sovereign credit rating but maintained a Negative Outlook. Stocks plunged again due to coronavirus fears, the largest fall being on 16 March. Many consider an economic recession likely.

Tourism is one of the worst affected sectors due to travel bans, closing of public places including travel attractions, and advice of governments against travel. Numerous airlines have cancelled flights due to lower demand, and British regional airline Flybe collapsed. The cruise line industry was hard hit, and several train stations and ferry ports have also been closed. International mail between some countries stopped or was delayed due to reduced transportation between them or suspension of domestic service.

The retail sector has been impacted globally, with reductions in store hours or temporary closures. Visits to retailers in Europe and Latin America declined by 40 per cent. North America and Middle East retailers saw a 50–60 per cent drop. This also resulted in a 33–43 per cent drop in foot traffic to shopping centres in March compared to February. Shopping mall operators around the world imposed additional measures, such as increased sanitation, installation of thermal scanners to check the temperature of shoppers, and cancellation of events.

According to a United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America estimate, the pandemic-induced recession could leave 14–22 million more people in extreme poverty in Latin America than would have been in that situation without the pandemic. The pandemic has disrupted global food supplies and threatens to trigger a new food crisis. David Beasley, head of the World Food Programme (WFP), said "we could be facing multiple famines of biblical proportions within a short few months."

Supply shortages

Main article: Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic

Coronavirus fears have led to panic buying of essentials across the world, including toilet paper, dried and/or instant noodles, bread, rice, vegetables, disinfectant, and rubbing alcohol.

The outbreak has been blamed for several instances of supply shortages, stemming from globally increased usage of equipment to fight outbreaks, panic buying (which in several places led to shelves being cleared of grocery essentials such as food, toilet paper, and bottled water), and disruption to factory and logistic operations. The technology industry, in particular, has warned of delays to shipments of electronic goods. According to the WHO director-general Tedros Adhanom, demand for personal protection equipment has risen a hundredfold, leading to prices up to twenty times the normal price and also delays in the supply of medical items of four to six months. It has also caused a shortage of personal protective equipment worldwide, with the WHO warning that this will endanger health workers.

The impact of the coronavirus outbreak was worldwide. The virus created a shortage of precursors used in the manufacturing of fentanyl and methamphetamine. The Yuancheng Group, located in Wuhan, China, is one of the leading suppliers of these chemical raw materials. Price increases and shortages in these illegal drugs have been noticed on the street of the UK. U.S. law enforcement also told the New York Post Mexican drug cartels were having difficulty in obtaining precursors.

Senior officials at the United Nations estimated in April 2020 that an additional 130 million people could develop starvation, for a total of 265 million by the end of 2020.

Oil and other energy markets

In early February 2020, Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) "scrambled" after a steep decline in oil prices due to lower demand from China. On Monday, 20 April, the price of West Texas Intermediate (WTI) went negative and fell to a record low (minus $37.63 a barrel) due to traders' offloading holdings so as not to take delivery and incur storage costs. June prices were down but in the positive range, with a barrel of West Texas trading above $20.

Culture

Main article: List of events affected by the COVID-19 pandemic

Further information: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the arts and cultural heritage, on cinema, on religion, on sports, on television, on video games, on performing arts, and on music

Closed entrance to the Shah Abdol-Azim Shrine in Ray, Iran

The performing arts and cultural heritage sectors have been profoundly affected by the pandemic, impacting organisations' operations as well as individuals—both employed and independent—globally. Arts and culture sector organisations attempted to uphold their (often publicly funded) mission to provide access to cultural heritage to the community, maintain the safety of their employees and the public, and support artists where possible. By March 2020, across the world and to varying degrees, museums, libraries, performance venues, and other cultural institutions had been indefinitely closed with their exhibitions, events and performances cancelled or postponed. In response there were intensive efforts to provide alternative services through digital platforms.

Door of a public library in Island Bay, New Zealand

Holy Week observances in Rome, which occur during the last week of the Christian penitential season of Lent, were cancelled. Many dioceses have recommended older Christians stay home rather than attend Mass on Sundays. (Services are available via radio, online live streaming and television.) With the Roman Catholic Diocese of Rome closing its churches and chapels and St. Peter's Square emptied of Christian pilgrims, other religious bodies also cancelled services and limited public gatherings in churches, mosques, synagogues, temples and gurdwaras. Iran's Health Ministry announced the cancellation of Friday prayers in areas affected by the outbreak and shrines were later closed, while Saudi Arabia banned the entry of foreign pilgrims as well as its residents to holy sites in Mecca and Medina.

The pandemic has caused the most significant disruption to the worldwide sporting calendar since the Second World War. Most major sporting events have been cancelled or postponed, including the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League, 2019–20 Premier League, UEFA Euro 2020, 2019–20 NBA season, and 2019–20 NHL season. The outbreak disrupted plans for the 2020 Summer Olympics, which were originally scheduled to start at the end of July; the International Olympic Committee announced on 24 March that they will be "rescheduled to a date beyond 2020 but not later than summer 2021".

The entertainment industry has also been affected, with many music groups suspending or cancelling concert tours. Many large theatres such as those on Broadway also suspended all performances. Some artists have explored ways to continue to produce and share work over the internet as an alternative to traditional live performance, such as live streaming concerts or creating web-based "festivals" for artists to perform, distribute, and publicise their work. Online, numerous coronavirus-themed Internet memes have spread as many turn to humour and distraction amid uncertainty.

Politics

Main article: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on politics

The pandemic has affected the political systems of multiple countries, causing suspensions of legislative activities, isolations or deaths of multiple politicians, and rescheduling of elections due to fears of spreading the virus.

China

Further information: China–United States relations § COVID-19

Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping (left) with State Council Premier Li Keqiang

The Chinese government has been criticised by the United States government, UK Minister for the Cabinet Office Michael Gove, and others for its handling of the pandemic. A number of provincial-level administrators of the Communist Party of China were dismissed over their handling of the quarantine efforts in central China, a sign of discontent with their response to the outbreak. Some commentators believed this move was intended to protect Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping from the controversy. The U.S. intelligence community says China intentionally under-reported its number of coronavirus cases.

Italy

In early March, the Italian government criticised the European Union's lack of solidarity with coronavirus-affected Italy—Maurizio Massari, Italy's ambassador to the EU, said "only China responded bilaterally", not the EU. On 22 March, after a phone call with Italian Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte, Russian president Vladimir Putin had the Russian army send military medics, disinfection vehicles, and other medical equipment to Italy. President of Lombardy Attilio Fontana and Italian Foreign Minister Luigi Di Maio expressed their gratitude for the aid. Russia also sent a cargo plane with medical aid to the United States. Kremlin spokesman Dmitry Peskov said "when offering assistance to U.S. colleagues, [Putin] assumes that when U.S. manufacturers of medical equipment and materials gain momentum, they will also be able to reciprocate if necessary."

United States

Several hundred anti-lockdown protesters rallied at the Ohio Statehouse 20 April.

The outbreak prompted calls for the United States to adopt social policies common in other wealthy countries, including universal health care, universal child care, paid sick leave, and higher levels of funding for public health. Political analysts anticipated it may negatively affect Donald Trump's chances of re-election in the 2020 presidential election. Beginning in mid-April 2020, there were protests in several U.S. states against government-imposed business closures and restricted personal movement and association.

Other countries

The planned NATO "Defender 2020" military exercise in Germany, Poland, and the Baltic states, the largest NATO war exercise since the end of the Cold War, will be held on a reduced scale. The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament's general secretary Kate Hudson criticised the exercise, saying "it jeopardises the lives not only of the troops from the U.S. and the many European countries participating but the inhabitants of the countries in which they are operating."

UK Prime Minister Boris Johnson (left) tested positive for COVID-19 in March 2020. Russian President Vladimir Putin (right) began working remotely from his office at Novo-Ogaryovo after meeting with an infected doctor.

The Iranian government has been heavily affected by the virus, with about two dozen parliament members and fifteen current or former political figures infected. Iran's President Hassan Rouhani wrote a public letter to world leaders asking for help on 14 March 2020, saying they were struggling to fight the outbreak due to a lack of access to international markets from the United States sanctions against Iran. Saudi Arabia, which launched a military intervention in Yemen in March 2015, declared a ceasefire.

Diplomatic relations between Japan and South Korea worsened due to the pandemic. South Korea criticised Japan's "ambiguous and passive quarantine efforts" after Japan announced anyone coming from South Korea would be placed in quarantine for two weeks at government-designated sites. South Korean society was initially polarised on President Moon Jae-in's response to the crisis; many Koreans signed petitions either calling for Moon's impeachment or praising his response.

Some countries have passed emergency legislation in response to the pandemic. Some commentators have expressed concern that it could allow governments to strengthen their grip on power. In the Philippines, lawmakers granted president Rodrigo Duterte temporary emergency powers during the pandemic. In Hungary, the parliament voted to allow the prime minister, Viktor Orbán, to rule by decree indefinitely, suspend parliament as well as elections, and punish those deemed to have spread false information about the virus and the government's handling of the crisis. In some countries, including Egypt, Turkey, and Thailand, opposition activists and government critics have been arrested for allegedly spreading fake news about the COVID-19 pandemic.

Education

Main article: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education

Learners affected by school closures caused by COVID-19 as of February 2021

  Full school closures

  Partial school closures

  Academic break

  Online learning

  No school closures

  No data

The [[COVID-19 pandemic|]] affected educational systems across the world. The number of cases of COVID-19 started to rise in March 2020 and many educational institutions and universities underwent closure. Most countries decided to temporarily close the educational institutions in order to reduce the spread of COVID-19. UNESCO estimates that at the height of the closures in April 2020, national educational shutdowns affected nearly 1.6 billion students in 200 countries: 94% of the student population and one-fifth of the global population. Closures are estimated to have lasted for an average of 41 weeks (10.3 months). They have had significant negative effects on student learning, which are predicted to have substantial long-term implications for both education and earnings. During the pandemic, education budgets and official aid program budgets for education had decreased.

The lockdowns have disproportionately affected already disadvantaged students, and students in low and middle income nations. Scarcer education options impacted people with few financial resources, while those with more found education. New online programs shifted the labor of education from schools to families and individuals, and consequently, people everywhere who relied on schools rather than computers and homeschooling had more difficulty. Early childhood education and care as well as school closures impacted students, teachers, and families, and far-reaching economic and societal consequences are expected. School closures shed light on various social and economic issues, including student debt, digital learning, food security, and homelessness, as well as access to childcare, health care, housing, internet, and disability services. The impact was more severe for disadvantaged children and their families, causing interrupted learning, compromised nutrition, childcare problems, and consequent economic cost to families who could not work.

In response to school closures, UNESCO recommended the use of distance learning programmes and open educational applications and platforms that schools and teachers can use to reach learners remotely and limit the disruption of education. In 2020, UNESCO estimated that nearly 24 million will dropout, with South Asia and Western Asia being the most affected.

Public health

The pandemic has led to a reduction in hospital visits for reasons other than COVID-19. There has been 38 per cent fewer hospital visits for heart attack symptoms in the United States and 40 per cent fewer in Spain. The head of cardiology at the University of Arizona said, "My worry is some of these people are dying at home because they're too scared to go to the hospital." There is also concern that people with strokes and appendicitis are not seeking timely treatment.

In several countries there has been a marked reduction of spread of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, attributable to COVID-19 quarantines, social distancing measures, and recommendations to not engage in casual sex. Similarly, in some places, rates of transmission of influenza and other respiratory viruses significantly decreased during the pandemic.

Environment and climate

Main article: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment

Images from the NASA Earth Observatory show a stark drop in pollution in Wuhan, when comparing NO₂ levels in early 2019 (top) and early 2020 (bottom).

The COVID-19 pandemic has had an impact on the environment, with changes in human activity leading to temporary changes in air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions and water quality. As the pandemic became a global health crisis in early 2020, various national responses including lockdowns and travel restrictions caused substantial disruption to society, travel, energy usage and economic activity, sometimes referred to as the "anthropause". As public health measures were lifted later in the pandemic, its impact has sometimes been discussed in terms of effects on implementing renewable energy transition and climate change mitigation.

With the onset of the pandemic, some positive effects on the environment as a result of human inactivity were observed. In 2020, carbon dioxide emissions fell by 6.4% or 2.3 billion tonnes globally. In April 2020, NO_x emissions fell by up to 30%. In China, lockdowns and other measures resulted in a 26% decrease in coal consumption, and a 50% reduction in nitrogen oxide emissions. Greenhouse gas emissions rebounded later in the pandemic as many countries began lifting restrictions, with the direct impact of pandemic policies having a negligible long-term impact on climate change.

Some developed nations introduced so-called "green recovery" economic stimulus packages, aiming to boost economic growth while facilitating renewable energy transition. One of these investments was the European Union's seven-year €1 trillion budget proposal and €750 billion recovery plan, "Next Generation EU", which seeks to reserve 25% of EU spending for climate-friendly expenditure.

However, decreased human activity during the pandemic diverted attention from ongoing activities such as accelerated deforestation of the Amazon rainforest and increased poaching in parts of Africa. The hindrance of environmental policy efforts, combined with economic slowdown may have contributed to slowed investment in green energy technologies.

The pandemic also led to increased medical waste. Production and use of medical equipment such as personal protective equipment contributed to plastic waste. The medical response required a larger than normal number of masks, gloves, needles, syringes, and medications. During 2020, approximately 65 billion gloves and 129 billion face masks were used every month, and were disposed of. Enforced public use of PPE has posed challenges to conventional waste management. Greenhouse gas emissions resulting from the treatment process of this plastic waste ranged from 14 to 33.5 tons of CO₂ per ton of mask, the largest share being from production and transport.

Xenophobia and racism

Main article: List of incidents of xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic

Since the start of the outbreak, heightened prejudice, xenophobia, and racism have been documented around the world toward people of Chinese and East Asian descent, Reports from February (when most cases were confined to China) documented racist sentiments expressed in groups worldwide about Chinese people deserving the virus. Citizens in countries including Malaysia, New Zealand, Singapore, Japan, Vietnam, and South Korea lobbied to ban Chinese people from entering their countries. Chinese people and other Asians in the United Kingdom and United States have reported increasing levels of racist abuse and assaults. U.S. president Donald Trump has been criticised for referring to the coronavirus as the "Chinese Virus", which critics say is racist and anti-Chinese.

Houston's Chinatown experienced a reduction in business early during the outbreak when there were still only a few cases.

Following the progression of the outbreak to new hotspot countries, people from Italy (the first country in Europe to experience a serious outbreak of COVID-19) were also subjected to suspicion and xenophobia, as were people from hotspots in other countries. Discrimination against Muslims in India escalated after public health authorities identified an Islamic missionary group's gathering in New Delhi in early March 2020 as a source of spread. Paris has seen riots break out over police treatment of ethnic minorities during the coronavirus lockdown. Racism and xenophobia towards South Asians and Southeast Asians increased in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf.

In China, xenophobia and racism against non-Chinese residents has been inflamed by the pandemic, with foreigners described as "foreign garbage" and targeted for "disposal". Some black people were evicted from their homes by police and told to leave China within 24 hours, due to disinformation that they and other foreigners were spreading the virus. Chinese racism and xenophobia was criticised by foreign governments and diplomatic corps, and China apologised for discriminatory practices such as restaurants excluding black customers, although these and other accusations of harassment, discrimination and eviction of black people in China continued.

Information dissemination

Further information: Media coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic, COVID-19 pandemic on social media, and Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on journalism

Some newspapers with paywalls have removed them for some or all of their coronavirus coverage. Many scientific publishers made scientific papers related to the outbreak available with open access. Some scientists chose to share their results quickly on preprint servers such as bioRxiv.

Misinformation

Main article: Misinformation related to the COVID-19 pandemic

U.S. president Donald Trump suggested at a press briefing on 23 April that disinfectant injections or exposure to ultraviolet light might help treat COVID-19. There is no evidence that either could be a viable method.

Disinfodemic – Deciphering COVID-19 disinformation, published by UNESCO

False information, including intentional disinformation and conspiracy theories, about the scale of the COVID-19 pandemic and the origin, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of the disease has been spread through social media, text messaging, and mass media. False information has been propagated by celebrities, politicians, and other prominent public figures. Many countries have passed laws against "fake news", and thousands of people have been arrested for spreading COVID-19 misinformation. The spread of COVID-19 misinformation by governments has also been significant.

Commercial scams have claimed to offer at-home tests, supposed preventives, and "miracle" cures. Several religious groups have claimed their faith will protect them from the virus. Without evidence, some people have claimed the virus is a bioweapon accidentally or deliberately leaked from a laboratory, a population control scheme, the result of a spy operation, or the side effect of 5G upgrades to cellular networks.

The World Health Organization (WHO) declared an "infodemic" of incorrect information about the virus that poses risks to global health. While belief in conspiracy theories is not a new phenomenon, in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, this can lead to adverse health effects. Cognitive biases, such as jumping to conclusions and confirmation bias, may be linked to the occurrence of conspiracy beliefs. Uncertainty among experts, when combined with a lack of understanding of the scientific process by laypeople, has likewise been a factor amplifying conspiracy theories about the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition to health effects, harms resulting from the spread of misinformation and endorsement of conspiracy theories include increasing distrust of news organizations and medical authorities as well as divisiveness and political fragmentation.

See also

• COVID-19 pandemic by country and territory
• Decoding COVID-19 – 2020 PBS documentary film
• Emerging infectious disease – Infectious disease of emerging pathogen, often novel in its outbreak range or transmission mode
• Globalisation and disease – Overview of globalization and disease transmissionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
• List of epidemics and pandemics
• Wildlife smuggling and zoonoses – Health risks associated with the trade in exotic wildlifePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
• Workplace hazard controls for COVID-19

Notes

Back to table

External links

Health agencies

• COVID-19 (Questions & Answers, instructional videos) by the World Health Organization
• COVID-19 (Q&A) by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
• COVID-19 by the National Health Commission, China
• COVID-19 (Q&A) by the Ministry of Health, Singapore
• COVID-19 (Q&A) by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control
• Coronavirus Disease 2019 (Q&A) by the U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

Directories

• COVID-19 Directory on Curlie
• COVID-19 Resource Directory on OpenMD

Data and graphs

• Coronavirus disease (COVID-2019) situation reports and map by the World Health Organization
• Coronavirus Resource Center, map, and historical data by Johns Hopkins University
• Historical data about COVID-19 cases published by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC)
• World Travel Restrictions based on WFP data
• Coronavirus Observer based on Johns Hopkins University data
• Covid-19 coronavirus pandemic published by Worldometer
• Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Statistics and Research published by Our World in Data
• COVID-19 Projections for many countries published by Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation
• Spreadsheets: Country comparisons
• Spreadsheets: Historical data with additional computations
• Epidemic Calculator
• Stat News Covid-19 Tracker

Medical journals

• Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) by JAMA
• Coronavirus: News and Resources by BMJ Publishing Group
• Novel Coronavirus Information Center by Elsevier
• COVID-19 Resource Centre by The Lancet
• SARS‑CoV‑2 and COVID-19 by Nature
• Coronavirus (Covid-19) by The New England Journal of Medicine
• Covid-19: Novel Coronavirus by Wiley Publishing