Jump to content

Japan

Edit links
Coordinates: 36°N 138°E / 36°N 138°E / 36; 138
Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from にっぽん)
Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Japan (disambiguation), Nihon (disambiguation), Nippon (disambiguation), and JPN (disambiguation).

Japan
日本国 (Japanese)
Nihon-koku or Nippon-koku
Anthem: 
君が代 ("Kimigayo")
"His Imperial Majesty's Reign"
State Seal:
大日本國璽 (Dai Nihon Kokuji)
"National Seal of Greater Japan"
Seal of the State of Japan
Projection of Asia with Japan's Area colored green
  Location of Japan
  Territory claimed but not controlled
Capital
and largest city
Tokyo
35°41′N 139°46′E / 35.683°N 139.767°E / 35.683; 139.767
Recognised national languagesJapanese (de facto)
Recognised regional languagesAinu[1][2]
Unrecognized regional languages
Ryukyuan languages
Hachijō
Demonym(s)Japanese
GovernmentUnitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy
• Emperor
Naruhito
Shigeru Ishiba
LegislatureNational Diet
• Upper house
House of Councillors
• Lower house
House of Representatives
Formation
November 29, 1890
May 3, 1947
Area
• Total
377,975 km2 (145,937 sq mi)[4] (62nd)
• Water (%)
1.4[3]
Population
• March 1, 2024 estimate
Neutral decrease 123,970,000[5] (11th)
• 2020 census
Neutral decrease 126,146,099[6]
• Density
330/km2 (854.7/sq mi) (44th)
GDP (PPP)2024 estimate
• Total
Increase $6.572 trillion[7] (4th)
• Per capita
Increase $53,059[7] (34th)
GDP (nominal)2024 estimate
• Total
Decrease $4.070 trillion[7] (4th)
• Per capita
Decrease $32,859[7] (30th)
Gini (2018)Positive decrease 33.4[8]
medium inequality
HDI (2022)Increase 0.920[9]
very high (24th)
CurrencyJapanese yen (¥)
Time zoneUTC+09:00 (JST)
Drives onleft
Calling code+81
ISO 3166 codeJP
Internet TLD.jp

Japan[b] is an island country in East Asia. It is located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asian mainland, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea in the south. The Japanese archipelago consists of four major islands—Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu—and thousands of smaller islands, covering 377,975 square kilometres (145,937 sq mi). Japan has a population of nearly 124 million as of 2024, and is the eleventh-most populous country. Its capital and largest city is Tokyo; the Greater Tokyo Area is the largest metropolitan area in the world, with more than 38 million inhabitants as of 2016. Japan is divided into 47 administrative prefectures and eight traditional regions. About three-quarters of the country's terrain is mountainous and heavily forested, concentrating its agriculture and highly urbanized population along its eastern coastal plains. The country sits on the Pacific Ring of Fire, making its islands prone to destructive earthquakes and tsunamis.

The first known habitation of the archipelago dates to the Upper Paleolithic, with the beginning Japanese Paleolithic dating to c. 36,000 BC. Between the fourth and sixth centuries, its kingdoms were united under an emperor in Nara, and later Heian-kyō. From the 12th century, actual power was held by military dictators (shōgun) and feudal lords (daimyō), and enforced by warrior nobility (samurai). After rule by the Kamakura and Ashikaga shogunates and a century of warring states, Japan was unified in 1600 by the Tokugawa shogunate, which implemented an isolationist foreign policy. In 1853, a United States fleet forced Japan to open trade to the West, which led to the end of the shogunate and the restoration of imperial power in 1868. In the Meiji period, the Empire of Japan pursued rapid industrialization and modernization, as well as militarism and overseas colonization. In 1937, Japan invaded China, and in 1941 attacked the United States and European colonial powers, entering World War II as an Axis power. After suffering defeat in the Pacific War and two atomic bombings, Japan surrendered in 1945 and came under Allied occupation. After the war, the country underwent rapid economic growth, although its economy has stagnated since 1990.

Japan is a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral legislature, the National Diet. A great power and the only Asian member of the G7, Japan has constitutionally renounced its right to declare war, but maintains one of the world's strongest militaries. A developed country with one of the world's largest economies by nominal GDP, Japan is a global leader in science and technology and the automotive, robotics, and electronics industries. It has one of the world's highest life expectancies, though it is undergoing a population decline. Japan's culture is well known around the world, including its art, cuisine, film, music, and popular culture, which includes prominent comics, animation, and video game industries.

Etymology

Main article: Names of Japan

The name for Japan in Japanese is written using the kanji 日本 and is pronounced Nihon or Nippon.[11] Before 日本 was adopted in the early 8th century, the country was known in China as Wa (倭, changed in Japan around 757 to 和) and in Japan by the endonym Yamato.[12] Nippon, the original Sino-Japanese reading of the characters, is favored for official uses, including on Japanese banknotes and postage stamps.[11] Nihon is typically used in everyday speech and reflects shifts in Japanese phonology during the Edo period.[12] The characters 日本 mean "sun origin",[11] which is the source of the popular Western epithet "Land of the Rising Sun".[13]

The name "Japan" is based on Min or Wu Chinese pronunciations of 日本 and was introduced to European languages through early trade.[14] In the 13th century, Marco Polo recorded the Early Mandarin Chinese pronunciation of the characters 日本國 as Cipangu.[15] The old Malay name for Japan, Japang or Japun, was borrowed from a southern coastal Chinese dialect and encountered by Portuguese traders in Southeast Asia, who brought the word to Europe in the early 16th century.[16] The first version of the name in English appears in a book published in 1577, which spelled the name as Giapan in a translation of a 1565 Portuguese letter.[17][14]

History

Main article: History of Japan
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Japanese history.

Prehistoric to classical history

Legendary Emperor Jimmu (神武天皇, Jinmu-tennō)

Modern humans arrived in Japan around 38,000 years ago (~36,000 BC), marking the beginning of the Japanese Paleolithic.[18] This was followed from around 14,500 BC (the start of the Jōmon period) by a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer culture characterized by pit dwelling and rudimentary agriculture.[19] Clay vessels from the period are among the oldest surviving examples of pottery.[20] The Japonic-speaking Yayoi people entered the archipelago from the Korean Peninsula,[21][22][23] intermingling with the Jōmon;[23] the Yayoi period saw the introduction of practices including wet-rice farming,[24] a new style of pottery,[25] and metallurgy from China and Korea.[26] According to legend, Emperor Jimmu (descendant of Amaterasu) founded a kingdom in central Japan in 660 BC, beginning a continuous imperial line.[27]

Japan first appears in written history in the Chinese Book of Han, completed in 111 AD. Buddhism was introduced to Japan from Baekje (a Korean kingdom) in 552, but the development of Japanese Buddhism was primarily influenced by China.[28] Despite early resistance, Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class, including figures like Prince Shōtoku, and gained widespread acceptance beginning in the Asuka period (592–710).[29]

In 645, the government led by Prince Naka no Ōe and Fujiwara no Kamatari devised and implemented the far-reaching Taika Reforms. The Reform began with land reform, based on Confucian ideas and philosophies from China.[30] It nationalized all land in Japan, to be distributed equally among cultivators, and ordered the compilation of a household registry as the basis for a new system of taxation.[31] The true aim of the reforms was to bring about greater centralization and to enhance the power of the imperial court, which was also based on the governmental structure of China. Envoys and students were dispatched to China to learn about Chinese writing, politics, art, and religion.[30] The Jinshin War of 672, a bloody conflict between Prince Ōama and his nephew Prince Ōtomo, became a major catalyst for further administrative reforms.[32] These reforms culminated with the promulgation of the Taihō Code, which consolidated existing statutes and established the structure of the central and subordinate local governments.[31] These legal reforms created the ritsuryō state, a system of Chinese-style centralized government that remained in place for half a millennium.[32]

The Nara period (710–784) marked the emergence of a Japanese state centered on the Imperial Court in Heijō-kyō (modern Nara). The period is characterized by the appearance of a nascent literary culture with the completion of the Kojiki (712) and Nihon Shoki (720), as well as the development of Buddhist-inspired artwork and architecture.[33][34] A smallpox epidemic in 735–737 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of Japan's population.[34][35] In 784, Emperor Kanmu moved the capital, settling on Heian-kyō (modern-day Kyoto) in 794.[34] This marked the beginning of the Heian period (794–1185), during which a distinctly indigenous Japanese culture emerged. Murasaki Shikibu's The Tale of Genji and the lyrics of Japan's national anthem "Kimigayo" were written during this time.[36]

Feudal era

Japanese samurai boarding a Mongol vessel during the Mongol invasions of Japan, depicted in the Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba, 1293
Three unifiers of Japan. Left to right: Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu.

Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence and dominance of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai.[37] In 1185, following the defeat of the Taira clan by the Minamoto clan in the Genpei War, samurai Minamoto no Yoritomo established a military government at Kamakura.[38] After Yoritomo's death, the Hōjō clan came to power as regents for the shōgun.[34] The Zen school of Buddhism was introduced from China in the Kamakura period (1185–1333) and became popular among the samurai class.[39] The Kamakura shogunate repelled Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281 but was eventually overthrown by Emperor Go-Daigo.[34] Go-Daigo was defeated by Ashikaga Takauji in 1336, beginning the Muromachi period (1336–1573).[40] The succeeding Ashikaga shogunate failed to control the feudal warlords (daimyō) and a civil war began in 1467, opening the century-long Sengoku period ("Warring States").[41]

During the 16th century, Portuguese traders and Jesuit missionaries reached Japan for the first time, initiating direct commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West.[34][42] Oda Nobunaga used European technology and firearms to conquer many other daimyō;[43] his consolidation of power began what was known as the Azuchi–Momoyama period.[44] After the death of Nobunaga in 1582, his successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, unified the nation in the early 1590s and launched two unsuccessful invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597.[34]

Tokugawa Ieyasu served as regent for Hideyoshi's son Toyotomi Hideyori and used his position to gain political and military support.[45] When open war broke out, Ieyasu defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. He was appointed shōgun by Emperor Go-Yōzei in 1603 and established the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo (modern Tokyo).[46] The shogunate enacted measures including buke shohatto, as a code of conduct to control the autonomous daimyō,[47] and in 1639 the isolationist sakoku ("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period (1603–1868).[46][48] Modern Japan's economic growth began in this period, resulting in roads and water transportation routes, as well as financial instruments such as futures contracts, banking and insurance of the Osaka rice brokers.[49] The study of Western sciences (rangaku) continued through contact with the Dutch enclave in Nagasaki.[46] The Edo period gave rise to kokugaku ("national studies"), the study of Japan by the Japanese.[50]

Modern era

Emperor Meiji (明治天皇, Meiji-tennō); 1852–1912
The Japanese Empire and its influence, 1942

The United States Navy sent Commodore Matthew C. Perry to force the opening of Japan to the outside world. Arriving at Uraga with four "Black Ships" in July 1853, the Perry Expedition resulted in the March 1854 Convention of Kanagawa.[46] Subsequent similar treaties with other Western countries brought economic and political crises.[46] The resignation of the shōgun led to the Boshin War and the establishment of a centralized state nominally unified under the emperor (the Meiji Restoration).[51] Adopting Western political, judicial, and military institutions, the Cabinet organized the Privy Council, introduced the Meiji Constitution (November 29, 1890), and assembled the Imperial Diet.[52] During the Meiji period (1868–1912), the Empire of Japan emerged as the most developed state in Asia and as an industrialized world power that pursued military conflict to expand its sphere of influence.[53][54][55] After victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), Japan gained control of Taiwan, Korea and the southern half of Sakhalin,[56][52] and annexed Korea in 1910.[57] The Japanese population doubled from 35 million in 1873 to 70 million by 1935, with a significant shift to urbanization.[58][59]

The early 20th century saw a period of Taishō democracy (1912–1926) overshadowed by increasing expansionism and militarization.[60][61] World War I allowed Japan, which joined the side of the victorious Allies, to capture German possessions in the Pacific and China in 1920.[61] The 1920s saw a political shift towards statism, a period of lawlessness following the 1923 Great Tokyo Earthquake, the passing of laws against political dissent, and a series of attempted coups.[59][62][63] This process accelerated during the 1930s, spawning several radical nationalist groups that shared a hostility to liberal democracy and a dedication to expansion in Asia.[64] In 1931, Japan invaded China and occupied Manchuria, which led to the establishment of puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932; following international condemnation of the occupation, it resigned from the League of Nations in 1933.[65] In 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany; the 1940 Tripartite Pact made it one of the Axis powers.[59]

Japan's imperial ambitions ended on September 2, 1945, with the country's surrender to the Allies.

The Empire of Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945).[66] In 1940, the Empire invaded French Indochina, after which the United States placed an oil embargo on Japan.[59][67] On December 7–8, 1941, Japanese forces carried out surprise attacks on Pearl Harbor, as well as on British forces in Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong, among others, beginning World War II in the Pacific.[68] Throughout areas occupied by Japan during the war, numerous abuses were committed against local inhabitants, with many forced into sexual slavery.[69] After Allied victories during the next four years, which culminated in the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan agreed to an unconditional surrender.[70] The war cost Japan millions of lives and its colonies, including de jure parts of Japan such as Korea, Taiwan, Karafuto, and the Kurils.[59] The Allies (led by the United States) repatriated millions of Japanese settlers from their former colonies and military camps throughout Asia, largely eliminating the Japanese Empire and its influence over the territories it conquered.[71][72] The Allies convened the International Military Tribunal for the Far East to prosecute Japanese leaders except the Emperor[73] for Japanese war crimes.[72]

In 1947, Japan adopted a new constitution emphasizing liberal democratic practices.[72] The Allied occupation ended with the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952,[74] and Japan was granted membership in the United Nations in 1956.[72] A period of record growth propelled Japan to become the second-largest economy in the world;[72] this ended in the mid-1990s after the popping of an asset price bubble, beginning the "Lost Decade".[75] In 2011, Japan suffered one of the largest earthquakes in its recorded history - the Tōhoku earthquake - triggering the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.[76] On May 1, 2019, after the historic abdication of Emperor Akihito, his son Naruhito became Emperor, beginning the Reiwa era.[77]

Geography

Main articles: Geography of Japan and Geology of Japan
A topographic map of Japan

Japan comprises 14,125 islands extending along the Pacific coast of Asia.[78] It stretches over 3000 km (1900 mi) northeast–southwest from the Sea of Okhotsk to the East China Sea.[79][80] The country's five main islands, from north to south, are Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu and Okinawa.[81] The Ryukyu Islands, which include Okinawa, are a chain to the south of Kyushu. The Nanpō Islands are south and east of the main islands of Japan. Together they are often known as the Japanese archipelago.[82] As of 2019, Japan's territory is 377,975.24 km2 (145,937.06 sq mi).[4] Japan has the sixth-longest coastline in the world at 29,751 km (18,486 mi). Because of its far-flung outlying islands, Japan's exclusive economic zone is the eighth-largest in the world, covering 4,470,000 km2 (1,730,000 sq mi).[83][84]

The Japanese archipelago is 67% forests and 14% agricultural.[85] The primarily rugged and mountainous terrain is restricted for habitation.[86] Thus the habitable zones, mainly in the coastal areas, have very high population densities: Japan is the 40th most densely populated country even without considering that local concentration.[87][88] Honshu has the highest population density at 450 persons/km2 (1200/sq mi) as of 2010, while Hokkaido has the lowest density of 64.5 persons/km2 as of 2016.[89] As of 2014, approximately 0.5% of Japan's total area is reclaimed land (umetatechi).[90] Lake Biwa is an ancient lake and the country's largest freshwater lake.[91]

Japan is substantially prone to earthquakes, tsunami and volcanic eruptions because of its location along the Pacific Ring of Fire.[92] It has the 17th highest natural disaster risk as measured in the 2016 World Risk Index.[93] Japan has 111 active volcanoes.[94] Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunami, occur several times each century;[95] the 1923 Tokyo earthquake killed over 140,000 people.[96] More recent major quakes are the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, which triggered a large tsunami.[76]

Climate

Main article: Geography of Japan § Climate
Mount Fuji in spring, view from Arakurayama Sengen Park

The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate but varies greatly from north to south. The northernmost region, Hokkaido, has a humid continental climate with long, cold winters and very warm to cool summers. Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snowbanks in the winter.[97]

In the Sea of Japan region on Honshu's west coast, northwest winter winds bring heavy snowfall during winter. In the summer, the region sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures because of the Foehn.[98] The Central Highland has a typical inland humid continental climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter. The mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions shelter the Seto Inland Sea from seasonal winds, bringing mild weather year-round.[97]

The Pacific coast features a humid subtropical climate that experiences milder winters with occasional snowfall and hot, humid summers because of the southeast seasonal wind. The Ryukyu and Nanpō Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season.[97] The main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the rain front gradually moves north. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain.[99] According to the Environment Ministry, heavy rainfall and increasing temperatures have caused problems in the agricultural industry and elsewhere.[100] The highest temperature ever measured in Japan, 41.1 °C (106.0 °F), was recorded on July 23, 2018,[101] and repeated on August 17, 2020.[102]

Biodiversity

Main article: Wildlife of Japan

Japan has nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and Bonin Islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.[103] Japan has over 90,000 species of wildlife as of 2019,[104] including the brown bear, the Japanese macaque, the Japanese raccoon dog, the small Japanese field mouse, and the Japanese giant salamander.[105] There are 53 Ramsar wetland sites in Japan.[106] Five sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List for their outstanding natural value.[107]

Environment

Main articles: Environmental issues in Japan and Climate change in Japan
Autumn maple leaves (momiji) at Kongōbu-ji on Mount Kōya, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

In the period of rapid economic growth after World War II, environmental policies were downplayed by the government and industrial corporations; as a result, environmental pollution was widespread in the 1950s and 1960s. Responding to rising concerns, the government introduced environmental protection laws in 1970.[108] The oil crisis in 1973 also encouraged the efficient use of energy because of Japan's lack of natural resources.[109]

Japan ranks 20th in the 2018 Environmental Performance Index, which measures a country's commitment to environmental sustainability.[110] Japan is the world's fifth-largest emitter of carbon dioxide.[100] As the host and signatory of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, Japan is under treaty obligation to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps to curb climate change.[111] In 2020, the government of Japan announced a target of carbon-neutrality by 2050.[112] Environmental issues include urban air pollution (NOx, suspended particulate matter, and toxics), waste management, water eutrophication, nature conservation, climate change, chemical management and international co-operation for conservation.[113]

Government and politics

Main articles: Emperor of Japan, Government of Japan, Politics of Japan, and Law of Japan
Emperor Naruhito, current head of state, and Empress Masako participated in the Imperial Procession by motorcar after the Ceremony of the Enthronement in Tokyo on November 10, 2019.

Japan is a unitary state and constitutional monarchy in which the power of the Emperor is limited to a ceremonial role.[114] Executive power is instead wielded by the Prime Minister of Japan and his Cabinet, whose sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people.[115] Naruhito is the Emperor of Japan, having succeeded his father Akihito upon his accession to the Chrysanthemum Throne in 2019.[114]

The National Diet Building

Japan's legislative organ is the National Diet, a bicameral parliament.[114] It consists of a lower House of Representatives with 465 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and an upper House of Councillors with 245 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms.[116] There is universal suffrage for adults over 18 years of age,[117] with a secret ballot for all elected offices.[115] The prime minister as the head of government has the power to appoint and dismiss Ministers of State, and is appointed by the emperor after being designated from among the members of the Diet.[116] Shigeru Ishiba is Japan's prime minister; he took office after winning the 2024 Liberal Democratic Party leadership election.[118] The broadly conservative Liberal Democratic Party has been the dominant party in the country since the 1950s, often called the 1955 System.[119]

Historically influenced by Chinese law, the Japanese legal system developed independently during the Edo period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki.[120] Since the late 19th century, the judicial system has been largely based on the civil law of Europe, notably Germany. In 1896, Japan established a civil code based on the German Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, which remains in effect with post–World War II modifications.[121] The Constitution of Japan, adopted in 1947, is the oldest unamended constitution in the world.[122] Statutory law originates in the legislature, and the constitution requires that the emperor promulgate legislation passed by the Diet without giving him the power to oppose legislation. The main body of Japanese statutory law is called the Six Codes.[120] Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers: the Supreme Court and three levels of lower courts.[123]

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Administrative divisions of Japan and Prefectures of Japan

Japan is divided into 47 prefectures, each overseen by an elected governor and legislature.[114] In the following table, the prefectures are grouped by region:[124]

Prefectures of Japan with colored regions
  Hokkaido
1. Hokkaido
  Tōhoku
2. Aomori
3. Iwate
4. Miyagi
5. Akita
6. Yamagata

7. Fukushima

  Kantō
8. Ibaraki
9. Tochigi
10. Gunma
11. Saitama
12. Chiba
13. Tokyo

14. Kanagawa

  Chūbu
15. Niigata
16. Toyama
17. Ishikawa
18. Fukui
19. Yamanashi
20. Nagano
21. Gifu
22. Shizuoka

23. Aichi

  Kansai
24. Mie
25. Shiga
26. Kyoto
27. Osaka
28. Hyōgo
29. Nara

30. Wakayama

  Chūgoku
31. Tottori
32. Shimane
33. Okayama
34. Hiroshima

35. Yamaguchi

  Shikoku
36. Tokushima
37. Kagawa
38. Ehime

39. Kōchi

  Kyūshū
40. Fukuoka
41. Saga
42. Nagasaki
43. Kumamoto
44. Ōita
45. Miyazaki
46. Kagoshima

47. Okinawa

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Japan
Japan is a member of both the G7 and the G20.

A member state of the United Nations since 1956, Japan is one of the G4 countries seeking reform of the Security Council.[125] Japan is a member of the G7, APEC, and "ASEAN Plus Three", and is a participant in the East Asia Summit.[126] It is the world's fifth-largest donor of official development assistance, donating US$9.2 billion in 2014.[127] In 2024, Japan had the fourth-largest diplomatic network in the world.[128]

Japan has close economic and military relations with the United States, with which it maintains a security alliance.[129] The United States is a major market for Japanese exports and a major source of Japanese imports, and is committed to defending the country, with military bases in Japan.[129] In 2016, Japan announced the Free and Open Indo-Pacific vision, which frames its regional policies.[130][131] Japan is also a member of the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue ("the Quad"), a multilateral security dialogue reformed in 2017 aiming to limit Chinese influence in the Indo-Pacific region, along with the United States, Australia, and India.[132][133]

Japan is engaged in several territorial disputes with its neighbors. Japan contests Russia's control of the Southern Kuril Islands, which were occupied by the Soviet Union in 1945.[134] South Korea's control of the Liancourt Rocks is acknowledged but not accepted as they are claimed by Japan.[135] Japan has strained relations with China and Taiwan over the Senkaku Islands and the status of Okinotorishima.[136]

Military

Main article: Japan Self-Defense Forces
JMSDF Kongō-class destroyer

Japan is the third highest-ranked Asian country in the 2024 Global Peace Index.[137] It spent 1.1% of its total GDP on its defence budget in 2022,[138] and maintained the tenth-largest military budget in the world in 2022.[139] The country's military (the Japan Self-Defense Forces) is restricted by Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, which renounces Japan's right to declare war or use military force in international disputes.[140] The military is governed by the Ministry of Defense, and primarily consists of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force, the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force. The deployment of troops to Iraq and Afghanistan marked the first overseas use of Japan's military since World War II.[141]

The Government of Japan has been making changes to its security policy which include the establishment of the National Security Council, the adoption of the National Security Strategy, and the development of the National Defense Program Guidelines.[142] In May 2014, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe said Japan wanted to shed the passiveness it has maintained since the end of World War II and take more responsibility for regional security.[143] In December 2022, Prime Minister Fumio Kishida further confirmed this trend, instructing the government to increase spending by 65% until 2027.[144] Recent tensions, particularly with North Korea and China, have reignited the debate over the status of the JSDF and its relation to Japanese society.[145][146]

Law enforcement

Main articles: Law enforcement in Japan and Crime in Japan
The headquarters of the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department

Domestic security in Japan is provided mainly by the prefectural police departments, under the oversight of the National Police Agency.[147] As the central coordinating body for the Prefectural Police Departments, the National Police Agency is administered by the National Public Safety Commission.[148] The Special Assault Team comprises national-level counter-terrorism tactical units that cooperate with territorial-level Anti-Firearms Squads and Counter-NBC Terrorism Squads.[149] The Japan Coast Guard guards territorial waters surrounding Japan and uses surveillance and control countermeasures against smuggling, marine environmental crime, poaching, piracy, spy ships, unauthorized foreign fishing vessels, and illegal immigration.[150]

The Firearm and Sword Possession Control Law strictly regulates the civilian ownership of guns, swords, and other weaponry.[151][152] According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, among the member states of the UN that report statistics as of 2018, the incidence rates of violent crimes such as murder, abduction, sexual violence, and robbery are very low in Japan.[153][154][155][156]

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Japan

Japanese society traditionally places a strong emphasis on collective harmony and conformity, which has led to the suppression of individual rights.[157] Japan's constitution prohibits racial and religious discrimination,[158][159] and the country is a signatory to numerous international human rights treaties.[160] However, it lacks any laws against discrimination based on race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, or gender identity and does not have a national human rights institution.[161]

Japan has faced criticism for its gender inequality,[162] not allowing same-sex marriages,[163] use of racial profiling by police,[164][165] and allowing capital punishment.[166] Other human rights issues include the treatment of marginalized groups, such as ethnic minorities,[167] refugees and asylum seekers.[168]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Japan
Skyscrapers in Nakanoshima, Osaka; a major financial center in Japan

Japan has the world's fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP, after that of the United States, China and Germany; and the fourth-largest economy by PPP-adjusted GDP.[169] As of 2021, Japan's labor force is the world's eighth-largest, consisting of over 68.6 million workers.[83] As of 2022, Japan has a low unemployment rate of around 2.6%.[170] Its poverty rate is the second highest among the G7 countries,[171] and exceeds 15.7% of the population.[172] Japan has the highest ratio of public debt to GDP among advanced economies,[173] with a national debt estimated at 248% relative to GDP as of 2022.[174] The Japanese yen is the world's third-largest reserve currency after the US dollar and the euro.[175]

Japan was the world's fifth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer in 2022.[176][177] Its exports amounted to 18.2% of its total GDP in 2021.[178] As of 2022, Japan's main export markets were China (23.9 percent, including Hong Kong) and the United States (18.5 percent).[179] Its main exports are motor vehicles, iron and steel products, semiconductors, and auto parts.[83] Japan's main import markets as of 2022 were China (21.1 percent), the United States (9.9 percent), and Australia (9.8 percent).[179] Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs, chemicals, and raw materials for its industries.[179]

The Japanese variant of capitalism has many distinct features: keiretsu enterprises are influential, and lifetime employment and seniority-based career advancement are common in the Japanese work environment.[180][181] Japan has a large cooperative sector, with three of the world's ten largest cooperatives, including the largest consumer cooperative and the largest agricultural cooperative as of 2018.[182] It ranks highly for competitiveness and economic freedom. Japan ranked sixth in the Global Competitiveness Report in 2019.[183] It attracted 31.9 million international tourists in 2019,[184] and was ranked eleventh in the world in 2019 for inbound tourism.[185] The 2021 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report ranked Japan first in the world out of 117 countries.[186] Its international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $46.1 billion.[185]

Agriculture and fishery

Main article: Agriculture, forestry, and fishing in Japan
A rice paddy in Aizu, Fukushima Prefecture

The Japanese agricultural sector accounts for about 1.2% of the country's total GDP as of 2018.[116] Only 11.5% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation.[187] Because of this lack of arable land, a system of terraces is used to farm in small areas.[188] This results in one of the world's highest levels of crop yields per unit area, with an agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 50% as of 2018.[189] Japan's small agricultural sector is highly subsidized and protected.[190] There has been a growing concern about farming as farmers are aging with a difficult time finding successors.[191]

Japan ranked seventh in the world in tonnage of fish caught and captured 3,167,610 metric tons of fish in 2016, down from an annual average of 4,000,000 tons over the previous decade.[192] Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch,[83] prompting critiques that Japan's fishing is leading to depletion in fish stocks such as tuna.[193] Japan has sparked controversy by supporting commercial whaling.[194]

Industry and services

Main articles: Manufacturing in Japan, Trade and services in Japan, Electronics industry in Japan, and Automotive industry in Japan
The Nissan GT-R, a sports car manufactured by Nissan. Japan is the third-largest producer of motor vehicles in the world.[195]

Japan has a large industrial capacity and is home to some of the "largest and most technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles, machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemical substances, textiles, and processed foods".[83] Japan's industrial sector makes up approximately 27.5% of its GDP.[83] The country's manufacturing output is the fourth highest in the world as of 2023.[196]

Japan is in the top three globally for both automobile production[195] and export,[197][198] and is home to Toyota, the world's largest automobile company by vehicle production. The Japanese shipbuilding industry faces increasing competition from its East Asian neighbors, South Korea and China; a 2020 government initiative identified this sector as a target for increasing exports.[199]

Japan's service sector accounts for about 69.5% of its total economic output as of 2021.[200] Banking, retail, transportation, and telecommunications are all major industries, with companies such as Toyota, Mitsubishi UFJ, -NTT, Aeon, SoftBank, Hitachi, and Itochu listed as among the largest in the world.[201][202]

Science and technology

Main articles: History of science and technology in Japan, Science and technology in Japan, Video gaming in Japan, and List of Japanese inventions and discoveries
The Japanese Experiment Module (Kibō) at the International Space Station

Relative to gross domestic product, Japan's research and development budget is the second highest in the world,[203] with 867,000 researchers sharing a 19-trillion-yen research and development budget as of 2017.[204] The country has produced twenty-two Nobel laureates in either physics, chemistry or medicine,[205] and three Fields medalists.[206]

Japan leads the world in robotics production and use, supplying 45% of the world's 2020 total;[207] down from 55% in 2017.[208] Japan has the second highest number of researchers in science and technology per capita in the world with 14 per 1000 employees.[209]

Once considered the strongest in the world, the Japanese consumer electronics industry is in a state of decline as regional competition arises in neighboring East Asian countries such as South Korea and China.[210] However, Japan's video game sector remains a major industry. In 2014, Japan's consumer video game market grossed $9.6 billion, with $5.8 billion coming from mobile gaming.[211] By 2015, Japan had become the world's fourth-largest PC game market by revenue, behind only China, the United States, and South Korea.[212]

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency is Japan's national space agency; it conducts space, planetary, and aviation research, and leads development of rockets and satellites.[213] It is a participant in the International Space Station: the Japanese Experiment Module (Kibō) was added to the station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2008.[214] The space probe Akatsuki was launched in 2010 and achieved orbit around Venus in 2015.[215] Japan's plans in space exploration include building a Moon base and landing astronauts by 2030.[216] In 2007, it launched lunar explorer SELENE (Selenological and Engineering Explorer) from Tanegashima Space Center. The largest lunar mission since the Apollo program, its purpose was to gather data on the Moon's origin and evolution. The explorer entered a lunar orbit on October 4, 2007,[217][218] and was deliberately crashed into the Moon on June 11, 2009.[219]

Infrastructure

Transportation

Main article: Transport in Japan
Japan Airlines, the flag carrier of Japan

Japan has invested heavily in transportation infrastructure since the 1990s.[220] The country has approximately 1,200,000 kilometers (750,000 miles) of roads made up of 1,000,000 kilometers (620,000 miles) of city, town and village roads, 130,000 kilometers (81,000 miles) of prefectural roads, 54,736 kilometers (34,011 miles) of general national highways and 7641 kilometers (4748 miles) of national expressways as of 2017.[221]

Since privatization in 1987,[222] dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in regional and local passenger transportation markets; major companies include seven JR enterprises, Kintetsu, Seibu Railway and Keio Corporation. The high-speed Shinkansen (bullet trains) that connect major cities are known for their safety and punctuality.[223]

There are 175 airports in Japan as of 2021.[83] The largest domestic airport, Haneda Airport in Tokyo, was Asia's second-busiest airport in 2019.[224] The Keihin and Hanshin superport hubs are among the largest in the world, at 7.98 and 5.22 million TEU respectively as of 2017.[225]

Energy

Main article: Energy in Japan
Part of the Seto Hill Windfarm

As of 2019, 37.1% of energy in Japan was produced from petroleum, 25.1% from coal, 22.4% from natural gas, 3.5% from hydropower and 2.8% from nuclear power, among other sources. Nuclear power was down from 11.2 percent in 2010.[226] By May 2012 all of the country's nuclear power plants had been taken offline because of ongoing public opposition following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in March 2011, though government officials continued to try to sway public opinion in favor of returning at least some to service.[227] The Sendai Nuclear Power Plant restarted in 2015,[228] and since then several other nuclear power plants have been restarted.[229] Japan lacks significant domestic reserves and has a heavy dependence on imported energy.[230] The country has therefore aimed to diversify its sources and maintain high levels of energy efficiency.[231]

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Japan, Japanese people, Ethnic groups of Japan, List of metropolitan areas in Japan, and List of cities in Japan
View of Tokyo from the top of the Tokyo Skytree. The Greater Tokyo Area is ranked as the most populous metropolitan area in the world.

Japan has a population of almost 125 million, of whom nearly 122 million are Japanese nationals (2022 estimates).[232] A small population of foreign residents makes up the remainder.[233] Japan is the world's fastest aging country and has the highest proportion of elderly citizens of any country, comprising one-third of its total population;[234] this is the result of a post–World War II baby boom, which was followed by an increase in life expectancy and a decrease in birth rates.[235] Japan has a total fertility rate of 1.4, which is below the replacement rate of 2.1, and is among the world's lowest;[236] it has a median age of 48.4, the highest in the world.[237] As of 2020, over 28.7 percent of the population is over 65, or more than one in four out of the Japanese population.[234] As a growing number of younger Japanese are not marrying or remaining childless,[238][239] Japan's population is expected to drop to around 88 million by 2065.[234]

The changes in demographic structure have created several social issues, particularly a decline in the workforce population and an increase in the cost of social security benefits.[238] The Government of Japan projects that there will be almost one elderly person for each person of working age by 2060.[237] Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population.[240][241] On April 1, 2019, Japan's revised immigration law was enacted, protecting the rights of foreign workers to help reduce labor shortages in certain sectors.[242]

In 2022, 92% of the total Japanese population lived in cities.[243] The capital city, Tokyo, has a population of 13.9 million (2022).[244] It is part of the Greater Tokyo Area, the biggest metropolitan area in the world with 38,140,000 people (2016).[245] Japan is an ethnically and culturally homogeneous society,[246] with the Japanese people forming 97.4% of the country's population.[247] Minority ethnic groups in the country include the indigenous Ainu and Ryukyuan people.[248] Zainichi Koreans,[249] Chinese,[250] Filipinos,[251] Brazilians mostly of Japanese descent,[252] and Peruvians mostly of Japanese descent are also among Japan's small minority groups.[253] Burakumin make up a social minority group.[254]

 
Largest cities or towns in Japan
Rank Name Prefecture Pop. Rank Name Prefecture Pop.
1 Tokyo Tokyo 9,272,740 11 Hiroshima Hiroshima 1,194,034
2 Yokohama Kanagawa 3,724,844 12 Sendai Miyagi 1,082,159
3 Osaka Osaka 2,691,185 13 Chiba Chiba 971,882
4 Nagoya Aichi 2,295,638 14 Kitakyushu Fukuoka 961,286
5 Sapporo Hokkaido 1,952,356 15 Sakai Osaka 839,310
6 Fukuoka Fukuoka 1,538,681 16 Niigata Niigata 810,157
7 Kobe Hyōgo 1,537,272 17 Hamamatsu Shizuoka 797,980
8 Kawasaki Kanagawa 1,475,213 18 Kumamoto Kumamoto 740,822
9 Kyoto Kyoto 1,475,183 19 Sagamihara Kanagawa 720,780
10 Saitama Saitama 1,263,979 20 Okayama Okayama 719,474

Languages

Main article: Languages of Japan
Kanji and hiragana signs

The Japanese language is Japan's de facto national language and the primary written and spoken language of most people in the country.[255] Japanese writing uses kanji (Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries based on cursive script and radicals used by kanji), as well as the Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals.[256] English has taken a major role in Japan as a business and international link language, and is a compulsory subject at the junior and senior high school levels.[257] Japanese Sign Language is the primary sign language used in Japan and has gained some official recognition, but its usage has been historically hindered by discriminatory policies and a lack of educational support.[255]

Besides Japanese, the Ryukyuan languages (Amami, Kunigami, Okinawan, Miyako, Yaeyama, Yonaguni), part of the Japonic language family, are spoken in the Ryukyu Islands chain.[258] Few children learn these languages,[259] but local governments have sought to increase awareness of the traditional languages.[260] The Ainu language, which is a language isolate, is moribund, with only a few native speakers remaining as of 2014.[261] Additionally, a number of other languages are taught and used by ethnic minorities, immigrant communities, and a growing number of foreign-language students, such as Korean (including a distinct Zainichi Korean dialect), Chinese and Portuguese.[255]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Japan
The torii of Itsukushima Shinto Shrine near Hiroshima

Japan's constitution guarantees full religious freedom.[262] Upper estimates suggest that 84–96 percent of the Japanese population subscribe to Shinto as its indigenous religion.[263] However, these estimates are based on people affiliated with a temple, rather than the number of true believers. Many Japanese people practice both Shinto and Buddhism; they can identify with both religions or describe themselves as non-religious or spiritual.[264] The level of participation in religious ceremonies as a cultural tradition remains high, especially during festivals and occasions such as the first shrine visit of the New Year.[265] Taoism and Confucianism from China have also influenced Japanese beliefs and customs.[30]

Today, 1%[266] to 1.5% of the population are Christians.[267] Throughout the latest century, Western customs originally related to Christianity (including Western style weddings, Valentine's Day and Christmas) have become popular as secular customs among many Japanese.[268]

About 90% of those practicing Islam in Japan are foreign-born migrants as of 2016.[269] As of 2018 there were an estimated 105 mosques and 200,000 Muslims in Japan, 43,000 of which were Japanese nationals.[270] Other minority religions include Hinduism, Judaism, and Baháʼí Faith, as well as the animist beliefs of the Ainu.[271]

Education

Main article: Education in Japan
Students celebrating after the announcement of the results of the entrance examinations to the University of Tokyo

Since the 1947 Fundamental Law of Education, compulsory education in Japan comprises elementary and junior high school, which together last for nine years.[272] Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior high school.[273] The top-ranking university in the country is the University of Tokyo.[274] Starting in April 2016, various schools began the academic year with elementary school and junior high school integrated into one nine-year compulsory schooling program; MEXT plans for this approach to be adopted nationwide.[275]

The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) coordinated by the OECD ranks the knowledge and skills of Japanese 15-year-olds as the third best in the world.[276] Japan is one of the top-performing OECD countries in reading literacy, math, and sciences with the average student scoring 520 and has one of the world's highest-educated labor forces among OECD countries.[277][276][278] It spent 7.4% of its total GDP on education as of 2021.[279] In 2021, the country ranked third for the percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds that have attained tertiary education with 55.6%.[280] Approximately 65% of Japanese aged 25 to 34 have some form of tertiary education qualification, with bachelor's degrees being held by 34.2% of Japanese aged 25 to 64, the second most in the OECD after South Korea.[280] Japanese women are more highly educated than the men: 59 percent of women possess a university degree, compared to 52 percent of men.[281]

Health

Main articles: Health in Japan and Health care system in Japan
University of Tokyo Hospital

Health care in Japan is provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments.[282] Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance.[283]

Japan spent 10.82% of its total GDP on healthcare in 2021.[284] In 2020, the overall life expectancy in Japan at birth was 85 years (82 years for men and 88 years for women),[285][286] the highest in the world;[287] while it had a very low infant mortality rate (2 per 1,000 live births).[288] Since 1981, the principal cause of death in Japan is cancer, which accounted for 27% of the total deaths in 2018—followed by cardiovascular diseases, which led to 15% of the deaths.[289] Japan has one of the world's highest suicide rates, which is considered a major social issue.[290] Another significant public health issue is smoking among Japanese men.[291] Japan has the lowest rate of heart disease in the OECD, and the lowest level of dementia among developed countries.[292]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Japan
See also: Japanese popular culture

Contemporary Japanese culture combines influences from Asia, Europe, and North America.[293] Traditional Japanese arts include crafts such as ceramics, textiles, lacquerware, swords and dolls; performances of bunraku, kabuki, noh, dance, and rakugo; and other practices, the tea ceremony, ikebana, martial arts, calligraphy, origami, onsen, Geisha and games. Japan has a developed system for the protection and promotion of both tangible and intangible Cultural Properties and National Treasures.[294] Twenty-two sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, eighteen of which are of cultural significance.[295] Japan is considered a cultural superpower.[296][297][298][299]

Art and architecture

Main article: Japanese art
Further information: Japanese architecture, Japanese garden, Japanese esthetics, Japanese painting, and Japanese sculpture
Hokusai's 19th-century ukiyo-e woodblock print The Great Wave off Kanagawa
Ritsurin Garden, one of the most famous strolling gardens in Japan

The history of Japanese painting exhibits synthesis and competition between native Japanese esthetics and imported ideas.[300] The interaction between Japanese and European art has been significant: for example ukiyo-e prints, which began to be exported in the 19th century in the movement known as Japonism, had a significant influence on the development of modern art in the West, most notably on post-Impressionism.[300]

Japanese architecture is a combination of local and other influences. It has traditionally been typified by wooden or mud plaster structures, elevated slightly off the ground, with tiled or thatched roofs.[301] Traditional housing and many temple buildings see the use of tatami mats and sliding doors that break down the distinction between rooms and indoor and outdoor space.[302] Since the 19th century, Japan has incorporated much of Western modern architecture into construction and design.[303] It was not until after World War II that Japanese architects made an impression on the international scene, firstly with the work of architects like Kenzō Tange and then with movements like Metabolism.[304]

Literature and philosophy

Main articles: Japanese literature, Japanese poetry, and Japanese philosophy
12th-century illustrated handscroll of The Tale of Genji, a National Treasure

The earliest works of Japanese literature include the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki chronicles and the Man'yōshū poetry anthology, all from the 8th century and written in Chinese characters.[305][306] In the early Heian period, the system of phonograms known as kana (hiragana and katakana) was developed.[307] The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter is considered the oldest extant Japanese narrative.[308] An account of court life is given in The Pillow Book by Sei Shōnagon, while The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu is often described as the world's first novel.[309][310]

During the Edo period, the chōnin ("townspeople") overtook the samurai aristocracy as producers and consumers of literature. The popularity of the works of Saikaku, for example, reveals this change in readership and authorship, while Bashō revivified the poetic tradition of the Kokinshū with his haikai (haiku) and wrote the poetic travelogue Oku no Hosomichi.[311] The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms as Japanese literature integrated Western influences. Natsume Sōseki and Mori Ōgai were significant novelists in the early 20th century, followed by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa, Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, Kafū Nagai and, more recently, Haruki Murakami and Kenji Nakagami. Japan has two Nobel Prize-winning authors – Yasunari Kawabata (1968) and Kenzaburō Ōe (1994).[312]

Japanese philosophy has historically been a fusion of both foreign, particularly Chinese and Western, and uniquely Japanese elements. In its literary forms, Japanese philosophy began about fourteen centuries ago. Confucian ideals remain evident in the Japanese concept of society and the self, and in the organization of the government and the structure of society.[313] Buddhism has profoundly impacted Japanese psychology, metaphysics, and esthetics.[314]

Performing arts

Main articles: Music of Japan and Theatre of Japan
Noh performance at a Shinto shrine

Japanese music is eclectic and diverse. Many instruments, such as the koto, were introduced in the 9th and 10th centuries. The popular folk music, with the guitar-like shamisen, dates from the 16th century.[315] Western classical music, introduced in the late 19th century, forms an integral part of Japanese culture.[316] Kumi-daiko (ensemble drumming) was developed in postwar Japan and became very popular in North America.[317] Popular music in post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European trends, which has led to the evolution of J-pop.[318] Karaoke is a significant cultural activity.[319]

The four traditional theaters from Japan are noh, kyōgen, kabuki, and bunraku.[320] Noh is one of the oldest continuous theater traditions in the world.[321]

Media

Main articles: Cinema of Japan, Manga, Anime, and Media of Japan

According to the 2015 NHK survey on television viewing in Japan, 79 percent of Japanese watch television daily.[322] Japanese television dramas are viewed both within Japan and internationally.[323] Many Japanese media franchises have gained considerable global popularity and are among the world's highest-grossing media franchises. Japanese newspapers are among the most circulated in the world as of 2016.[324]

Japan has one of the oldest and largest film industries globally.[325] Ishirō Honda's Godzilla became an international icon of Japan and spawned an entire subgenre of kaiju films, as well as the longest-running film franchise in history.[326][327] Japanese comics, known as manga, developed in the mid-20th century and have become popular worldwide.[328][329] A large number of manga series have become some of the best-selling comics series of all time, rivalling the American comics industry.[330] Japanese animated films and television series, known as anime, were largely influenced by Japanese manga and have become highly popular globally.[331][332]

Holidays

Main articles: Public holidays in Japan and Japanese festivals
Young women celebrate Coming of Age Day (成人の日, Seijin no Hi) in Harajuku, Tokyo.

Officially, Japan has 16 national, government-recognized holidays. Public holidays in Japan are regulated by the Public Holiday Law (国民の祝日に関する法律, Kokumin no Shukujitsu ni Kansuru Hōritsu) of 1948.[333] Beginning in 2000, Japan implemented the Happy Monday System, which moved a number of national holidays to Monday in order to obtain a long weekend.[334] The national holidays in Japan are New Year's Day on January 1, Coming of Age Day on the second Monday of January, National Foundation Day on February 11, The Emperor's Birthday on February 23, Vernal Equinox Day on March 20 or 21, Shōwa Day on April 29, Constitution Memorial Day on May 3, Greenery Day on May 4, Children's Day on May 5, Marine Day on the third Monday of July, Mountain Day on August 11, Respect for the Aged Day on the third Monday of September, Autumnal Equinox on September 23 or 24, Health and Sports Day on the second Monday of October, Culture Day on November 3, and Labor Thanksgiving Day on November 23.[335]

Cuisine

Main article: Japanese cuisine
A plate of nigiri-zushi

Japanese cuisine offers a vast array of regional specialties that use traditional recipes and local ingredients.[336] Seafood and Japanese rice or noodles are traditional staples.[337] Japanese curry, since its introduction to Japan from British India, is so widely consumed that it can be termed a national dish, alongside ramen and sushi.[338][339] Traditional Japanese sweets are known as wagashi.[340] Ingredients such as red bean paste and mochi are used. More modern-day tastes include green tea ice cream.[341]

Popular Japanese beverages include sake, a brewed rice beverage that typically contains 14–17% alcohol and is made by multiple fermentation of rice.[342] Beer has been brewed in Japan since the late 17th century.[343] Green tea is produced in Japan and prepared in forms such as matcha, used in the Japanese tea ceremony.[344]

Sports

Main article: Sport in Japan
Sumo wrestlers form around the referee during the ring-entering ceremony.

Traditionally, sumo is considered Japan's national sport.[345] Japanese martial arts such as judo and kendo are taught as part of the compulsory junior high school curriculum.[346] Baseball is the most popular sport in the country.[347] Japan's top professional league, Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), was established in 1936.[348] Since the establishment of the Japan Professional Football League (J.League) in 1992, association football gained a wide following.[349] The country co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea.[350] Japan has one of the most successful football teams in Asia, winning the Asian Cup four times,[351] and the FIFA Women's World Cup in 2011.[352] Golf is also popular in Japan.[353]

In motorsport, Japanese automotive manufacturers have been successful in multiple different categories, with titles and victories in series such as Formula One, MotoGP, and the World Rally Championship.[354][355][356] Drivers from Japan have victories at the Indianapolis 500 and the 24 Hours of Le Mans as well as podium finishes in Formula One, in addition to success in domestic championships.[357][358] Super GT is the most popular national racing series in Japan, while Super Formula is the top-level domestic open-wheel series.[359] The country hosts major races such as the Japanese Grand Prix.[360]

Japan hosted the Summer Olympics in Tokyo in 1964 and the Winter Olympics in Sapporo in 1972 and Nagano in 1998.[361] The country hosted the official 2006 Basketball World Championship[362] and co-hosted the 2023 Basketball World Championship.[363] Tokyo hosted the 2020 Summer Olympics in 2021, making Tokyo the first Asian city to host the Olympics twice.[364] The country gained the hosting rights for the official Women's Volleyball World Championship on five occasions, more than any other country.[365] Japan is the most successful Asian Rugby Union country[366] and hosted the 2019 IRB Rugby World Cup.[367]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The Government of Japan uses a different seal.
  2. ^ Japanese: 日本, Nihon [ɲihoꜜɴ] ⓘ or Nippon [ɲippoꜜɴ] ⓘ, formally 日本国, Nihon-koku or Nippon-koku. In Japanese, the name of the country as it appears on official documents, including the country's constitution, is 日本国, meaning "State of Japan". The short name 日本 is also often used officially. In English, the official name of the country is simply "Japan".[10]

References

  1. ^ Lewallen, Ann-Elise (November 1, 2008). "Indigenous at last! Ainu Grassroots Organizing and the Indigenous Peoples Summit in Ainu Mosir". The Asia Pacific Journal (Japan Focus). No. 11. Archived from the original on October 23, 2023.
  2. ^ Martin, Kylie (2011). "Aynu itak: On the Road to Ainu Language Revitalization" (PDF). Media and Communication Studies メディア·コミュニケーション研究. 60: 57–93. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 21, 2015.
  3. ^ "Surface water and surface water change". OECD. Archived from the original on March 24, 2021. Retrieved October 11, 2020.
  4. ^ a b 令和元年全国都道府県市区町村別面積調 (10月1日時点) [Reiwa 1 nationwide area survey by prefectures and municipalities (as of October 1)] (in Japanese). Geospatial Information Authority of Japan. December 26, 2019. Archived from the original on April 15, 2020.
  5. ^ "Population estimates by age (five-year groups) and sex". Statistics Bureau of Japan. Archived from the original on April 5, 2018. Retrieved February 20, 2024.
  6. ^ "2020 Population Census: population by sex, age (single years), month of birth and all nationality or Japanese". Statistics Bureau of Japan. Archived from the original on July 7, 2024. Retrieved July 7, 2024.
  7. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (Japan)". www.imf.org. International Monetary Fund. October 22, 2024. Retrieved October 22, 2024.
  8. ^ "Inequality – Income inequality". OECD. Archived from the original on July 1, 2022. Retrieved July 25, 2021.
  9. ^ "Human Development Report 2023/2024" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. March 13, 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 13, 2024. Retrieved March 13, 2024.
  10. ^ "Official Names of Member States (UNTERM)" (PDF). UN Protocol and Liaison Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 5, 2020. Retrieved May 21, 2020.
  11. ^ a b c Schreiber, Mark (November 26, 2019). "You say 'Nihon', I say 'Nippon', or let's call the whole thing 'Japan'?". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on October 27, 2022.
  12. ^ a b Carr, Michael (March 1992). "Wa Wa Lexicography". International Journal of Lexicography. 5 (1): 1–31. doi:10.1093/ijl/5.1.1.
  13. ^ Piggott, Joan R. (1997). The Emergence of Japanese Kingship. Stanford University Press. pp. 143–144. ISBN 978-0-8047-2832-4.
  14. ^ a b Batchelor, Robert K. (2014). London: The Selden Map and the Making of a Global City, 1549–1689. University of Chicago Press. pp. 76, 79. ISBN 978-0-226-08079-6.
  15. ^ Hoffman, Michael (July 27, 2008). "Cipangu's landlocked isles". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on August 25, 2018.
  16. ^ Lach, Donald (2010). Asia in the Making of Europe. Vol. I. University of Chicago Press. p. 157.
  17. ^ Mancall, Peter C. (2006). "Of the Ilande of Giapan, 1565". Travel Narratives from the Age of Discovery: an anthology. Oxford University Press. pp. 156–157.
  18. ^ Kondo, Y.; Takeshita, Y.; Watanabe, T.; Seki, M.; Nojiri-ko Excavation Research Group (April 2018). "Geology and Quaternary environments of the Tategahana Paleolithic site in Nojiri-ko (Lake Nojiri), Nagano, central Japan". Quaternary International. 471: 385–395. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2017.12.012.
  19. ^ Habu, Junko (2004). Ancient Jomon of Japan. Cambridge University Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-521-77670-7.
  20. ^ "Jōmon Culture (ca. 10,500–ca. 300 B.C.)". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Archived from the original on December 13, 2021. Retrieved August 28, 2020.
  21. ^ Wade, Nicholas (May 4, 2011). "Finding on Dialects Casts New Light on the Origins of the Japanese People". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 31, 2018.
  22. ^ Vovin, Alexander (2017). "Origins of the Japanese Language". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.277. ISBN 978-0-19-938465-5.
  23. ^ a b Watanabe, Yusuke; Naka, Izumi; Khor, Seik-Soon; Sawai, Hiromi; Hitomi, Yuki; Tokunaga, Katsushi; Ohashi, Jun (June 17, 2019). "Analysis of whole Y-chromosome sequences reveals the Japanese population history in the Jomon period". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 8556. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-44473-z.
  24. ^ "Road of rice plant". National Science Museum of Japan. Archived from the original on April 30, 2011. Retrieved January 15, 2011.
  25. ^ "Kofun Period (ca. 300–710)". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Archived from the original on February 21, 2018. Retrieved August 28, 2020.
  26. ^ "Yayoi Culture (ca. 300 B.C.–300 A.D.)". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Archived from the original on January 4, 2020. Retrieved August 28, 2020.
  27. ^ Hendry, Joy (2012). Understanding Japanese Society. Routledge. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-136-27918-8.
  28. ^ Brown, Delmer M.; Hall, John Whitney; Jansen, Marius B.; Shively, Donald H.; Twitchett, Denis (1988). The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 140–149, 275. ISBN 978-0-521-22352-2.
  29. ^ Beasley, William Gerald (1999). The Japanese Experience: A Short History of Japan. University of California Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-520-22560-2.
  30. ^ a b c Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. p. 72. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
  31. ^ a b Sansom, George (1961). A History of Japan: 1334–1615. Stanford University Press. pp. 57, 68. ISBN 978-0-8047-0525-7.
  32. ^ a b Totman, Conrad (2002). A History of Japan. Blackwell. pp. 107–108. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
  33. ^ Totman, Conrad (2002). A History of Japan. Blackwell. pp. 64–79. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
  34. ^ a b c d e f g Henshall, Kenneth (2012). "Of Courtiers and Warriors: Early and Medieval History (710–1600)". A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 24–52. ISBN 978-0-230-36918-4.
  35. ^ Hays, J.N. (2005). Epidemics and pandemics: their impacts on human history. ABC-CLIO. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-85109-658-9.
  36. ^ Totman, Conrad (2002). A History of Japan. Blackwell. pp. 79–87, 122–123. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
  37. ^ Leibo, Steven A. (2015). East and Southeast Asia 2015–2016. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 99–104. ISBN 978-1-4758-1875-8.
  38. ^ Middleton, John (2015). World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. p. 616.
  39. ^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 106–112. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
  40. ^ Shirane, Haruo (2012). Traditional Japanese Literature: An Anthology, Beginnings to 1600. Columbia University Press. p. 409. ISBN 978-0-231-15730-8.
  41. ^ Sansom, George (1961). A History of Japan: 1334–1615. Stanford University Press. pp. 42, 217. ISBN 978-0-8047-0525-7.
  42. ^ Lidin, Olof (2005). Tanegashima. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-203-47957-2.
  43. ^ Brown, Delmer (May 1948). "The impact of firearms on Japanese warfare, 1543–98". The Far Eastern Quarterly. 7 (3): 236–253. doi:10.2307/2048846.
  44. ^ "Azuchi-Momoyama period (1573–1603)". Dallas Museum of Art. Archived from the original on November 6, 2020. Retrieved October 3, 2020.
  45. ^ Turnbull, Stephen (2011). Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Osprey Publishing. p. 61. ISBN 978-1-84603-960-7.
  46. ^ a b c d e Henshall, Kenneth (2012). "The Closed Country: the Tokugawa Period (1600–1868)". A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 53–74. ISBN 978-0-230-36918-4.
  47. ^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 142–143. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
  48. ^ Toby, Ronald P. (1977). "Reopening the Question of Sakoku: Diplomacy in the Legitimation of the Tokugawa Bakufu". Journal of Japanese Studies. 3 (2): 323–363. doi:10.2307/132115. JSTOR 132115.
  49. ^ Howe, Christopher (1996). The Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy. Hurst & Company. pp. 58ff. ISBN 978-1-85065-538-1.
  50. ^ Ohtsu, M.; Imanari, Tomio (1999). "Japanese National Values and Confucianism". Japanese Economy. 27 (2): 45–59. doi:10.2753/JES1097-203X270245.
  51. ^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 289–296. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
  52. ^ a b Henshall, Kenneth (2012). "Building a Modern Nation: the Meiji Period (1868–1912)". A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 75–107. ISBN 978-0-230-36918-4.
  53. ^ McCargo, Duncan (2000). Contemporary Japan. Macmillan. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-0-333-71000-5.
  54. ^ Baran, Paul (1962). The Political Economy of Growth. Monthly Review Press. p. 160.
  55. ^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 312–314. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
  56. ^ Matsusaka, Y. Tak (2009). "The Japanese Empire". In Tsutsui, William M. (ed.). Companion to Japanese History. Blackwell. pp. 224–241. ISBN 978-1-4051-1690-9.
  57. ^ Yi Wei (October 15, 2019). "Japanese Colonial Ideology In Korea (1905–1945)". The Yale Review of International Studies.
  58. ^ Hiroshi, Shimizu; Hitoshi, Hirakawa (1999). Japan and Singapore in the world economy: Japan's economic advance into Singapore, 1870–1965. Routledge. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-415-19236-1.
  59. ^ a b c d e Henshall, Kenneth (2012). "The Excesses of Ambition: the Pacific War and its Lead-Up". A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 108–141. ISBN 978-0-230-36918-4.
  60. ^ Tsuzuki, Chushichi (2011). "Taisho Democracy and the First World War". The Pursuit of Power in Modern Japan 1825–1995. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198205890.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-820589-0.
  61. ^ a b Ramesh, S (2020). "The Taisho Period (1912–1926): Transition from Democracy to a Military Economy". China's Economic Rise. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 173–209. ISBN 978-3-030-49811-5.
  62. ^ Burnett, M. Troy, ed. (2020). Nationalism Today: Extreme Political Movements around the World. ABC-CLIO. p. 20.
  63. ^ Weber, Torsten (2018). Embracing 'Asia' in China and Japan. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 268.
  64. ^ Young, Louise (2024). "The Breakdown in Democracy in 1930s Japan". When Democracy Breaks. Oxford University Press. pp. 108–141. ISBN 0-19-776078-3.
  65. ^ "The Japanese Nation: It has a history of feudalism, nationalism, war and now defeat". LIFE. Vol. 19, no. 12. September 17, 1945. pp. 109–111.
  66. ^ Paine, S. C. M. (2012). The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949. Cambridge University Press. pp. 123–125. ISBN 978-1-139-56087-0.
  67. ^ Worth, Roland H. Jr. (1995). No Choice But War: the United States Embargo Against Japan and the Eruption of War in the Pacific. McFarland. pp. 56, 86. ISBN 978-0-7864-0141-3.
  68. ^ Bailey, Beth; Farber, David (2019). "Introduction: December 7/8, 1941". Beyond Pearl Harbor: A Pacific History. University Press of Kansas. pp. 1–8.
  69. ^ Yōko, Hayashi (1999–2000). "Issues Surrounding the Wartime "Comfort Women"". Review of Japanese Culture and Society. 11/12 (Special Issue): 54–65. JSTOR 42800182.
  70. ^ Pape, Robert A. (1993). "Why Japan Surrendered". International Security. 18 (2): 154–201. doi:10.2307/2539100.
  71. ^ Watt, Lori (2010). When Empire Comes Home: Repatriation and Reintegration in Postwar Japan. Harvard University Press. pp. 1–4. ISBN 978-0-674-05598-8.
  72. ^ a b c d e Henshall, Kenneth (2012). "A Phoenix from the Ashes: Postwar Successes and Beyond". A History of Japan: From Stone Age to Superpower. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 142–180. ISBN 978-0-230-36918-4.
  73. ^ Frank, Richard (August 26, 2020). "The Fate of Emperor Hirohito". The National WWII Museum. Archived from the original on May 9, 2024.
  74. ^ Coleman, Joseph (March 6, 2007). "'52 coup plot bid to rearm Japan: CIA". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on April 11, 2016.
  75. ^ Saxonhouse, Gary; Stern, Robert (2003). "The bubble and the lost decade". The World Economy. 26 (3): 267–281. doi:10.1111/1467-9701.00522. hdl:2027.42/71597.
  76. ^ a b Fackler, Martin; Drew, Kevin (March 11, 2011). "Devastation as Tsunami Crashes Into Japan". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 3, 2022.
  77. ^ "Japan's emperor thanks country, prays for peace before abdication". Nikkei Asian Review. April 30, 2019. Archived from the original on May 11, 2020.
  78. ^ McCurry, Justin (February 16, 2023). "Japan sees its number of islands double after recount". The Guardian. Archived from the original on March 1, 2023.
  79. ^ "Water Supply in Japan". Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. Archived from the original on January 26, 2018. Retrieved September 26, 2018.
  80. ^ Iwashita, Akihiro (2011). "An Invitation to Japan's Borderlands: At the Geopolitical Edge of the Eurasian Continent". Journal of Borderlands Studies. 26 (3): 279–282. doi:10.1080/08865655.2011.686969.
  81. ^ Kuwahara, Sueo (2012). "The development of small islands in Japan: An historical perspective". Journal of Marine and Island Cultures. 1 (1): 38–45. doi:10.1016/j.imic.2012.04.004.
  82. ^ McCargo, Duncan (2000). Contemporary Japan. Macmillan. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-0-333-71000-5.
  83. ^ a b c d e f g "World Factbook: Japan". CIA. Archived from the original on January 5, 2021. Retrieved September 24, 2022.
  84. ^ Yamada, Yoshihiko (2011). "Japan's New National Border Strategy and Maritime Security". Journal of Borderlands Studies. 26 (3): 357–367. doi:10.1080/08865655.2011.686972.
  85. ^ "Natural environment of Japan: Japanese archipelago". Ministry of the Environment. Archived from the original on August 5, 2022. Retrieved August 4, 2022.
  86. ^ Fujimoto, Shouji; Mizuno, Takayuki; Ohnishi, Takaaki; Shimizu, Chihiro; Watanabe, Tsutomu (2017). "Relationship between population density and population movement in inhabitable lands". Evolutionary and Institutional Economics Review. 14: 117–130. doi:10.1007/s40844-016-0064-z.
  87. ^ "List of countries by population density". Statistics Times. Archived from the original on September 26, 2020. Retrieved October 12, 2020.
  88. ^ Fujimoto, Shouji; Mizuno, Takayuki; Ohnishi, Takaaki; Shimizu, Chihiro; Watanabe, Tsutomu (2015). Geographic Dependency of Population Distribution. International Conference on Social Modeling and Simulation, plus Econophysics Colloquium 2014. Springer Proceedings in Complexity. pp. 151–162. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-20591-5_14. ISBN 978-3-319-20590-8.
  89. ^ 総務省｜住基ネット [Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications Resident Registration net]. soumu.go.jp. Archived from the original on February 24, 2021. Retrieved November 13, 2021.
  90. ^ Hua, Yang (2014). "Legal Regulation of Land Reclamation in China's Coastal Areas". Coastal Management. 42 (1): 59–79. doi:10.1080/08920753.2013.865008.
  91. ^ Tabata, Ryoichi; Kakioka, Ryo; Tominaga, Koji; Komiya, Takefumi; Watanabe, Katsutoshi (2016). "Phylogeny and historical demography of endemic fishes in Lake Biwa: The ancient lake as a promoter of evolution and diversification of freshwater fishes in western Japan". Ecology and Evolution. 6 (8): 2601–2623. doi:10.1002/ece3.2070. PMC 4798153. PMID 27066244.
  92. ^ Israel, Brett (March 14, 2011). "Japan's Explosive Geology Explained". Live Science. Archived from the original on August 5, 2019.
  93. ^ "World Risk Report 2016". UNU-EHS. Archived from the original on September 23, 2020. Retrieved November 8, 2020.
  94. ^ Fujita, Eisuke; Ueda, Hideki; Nakada, Setsuya (July 2020). "A New Japan Volcanological Database". Frontiers in Earth Science. 8: 205. doi:10.3389/feart.2020.00205.
  95. ^ "Tectonics and Volcanoes of Japan". Oregon State University. Archived from the original on February 4, 2007. Retrieved March 27, 2007.
  96. ^ Hammer, Joshua (May 2011). "The Great Japan Earthquake of 1923". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on March 18, 2021.
  97. ^ a b c Karan, Pradyumna Prasad; Gilbreath, Dick (2005). Japan in the 21st century. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 18–21, 41. ISBN 978-0-8131-2342-4.
  98. ^ "Climate of Hokuriku district". Japan Meteorological Agency. Archived from the original on November 15, 2020. Retrieved October 24, 2020.
  99. ^ "Overview of Japan's climate". Japan Meteorological Association. Archived from the original on November 12, 2020. Retrieved December 11, 2020.
  100. ^ a b Ito, Masami. "Japan 2030: Tackling climate issues is key to the next decade". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on March 9, 2021. Retrieved September 24, 2020.
  101. ^ "Record High in Japan as Heat Wave Grips the Region". The New York Times. Associated Press. July 23, 2018. Archived from the original on July 23, 2018.
  102. ^ Ogura, Junko; Regan, Helen (August 18, 2020). "Japan's heat wave continues, as temperatures equal highest record". CNN. Archived from the original on November 20, 2020.
  103. ^ "Flora and Fauna: Diversity and regional uniqueness". Embassy of Japan in the USA. Archived from the original on February 13, 2007. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
  104. ^ Sakurai, Ryo (2019). Human Dimensions of Wildlife Management in Japan: From Asia to the World. Springer. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-981-13-6332-0.
  105. ^ "The Wildlife in Japan" (PDF). Ministry of the Environment. March 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 21, 2016.
  106. ^ "Japan". Ramsar. Archived from the original on October 21, 2020. Retrieved December 11, 2020.
  107. ^ "Japan". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved September 29, 2024.
  108. ^ 日本の大気汚染の歴史 [Historical Air Pollution in Japan] (in Japanese). Environmental Restoration and Conservation Agency. Archived from the original on May 1, 2011. Retrieved March 2, 2014.
  109. ^ Sekiyama, Takeshi. "Japan's international cooperation for energy efficiency and conservation in Asian region" (PDF). Energy Conservation Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 16, 2008. Retrieved January 16, 2011.
  110. ^ "Environmental Performance Index: Japan". Yale University. Archived from the original on November 19, 2018. Retrieved February 26, 2018.
  111. ^ "Japan sees extra emission cuts to 2020 goal – minister". Reuters. June 24, 2009. Archived from the original on October 12, 2017.
  112. ^ Davidson, Jordan (October 26, 2020). "Japan Targets Carbon Neutrality by 2050". Ecowatch. Archived from the original on November 1, 2020.
  113. ^ "Environmental Performance Review of Japan" (PDF). OECD. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 15, 2010. Retrieved January 16, 2011.
  114. ^ a b c d "Japan's Parliament and other political institutions". European Parliament. June 9, 2020. Archived from the original on October 19, 2021.
  115. ^ a b "The Constitution of Japan". Prime Minister of Japan and His Cabinet. November 3, 1946. Archived from the original on December 14, 2013.
  116. ^ a b c "Japan". US Securities and Exchange Commission. August 6, 2020. Archived from the original on November 6, 2020.
  117. ^ "Japan Youth Can Make Difference with New Voting Rights: UN Envoy". UN Envoy on Youth. July 2016. Archived from the original on October 28, 2020.
  118. ^ Ninivagi, Gabriele (September 27, 2024). "Ishiba wins: An unusual result for an unusual election". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on September 30, 2024.
  119. ^ Crespo, José Antonio (April 1995). "The Liberal Democratic Party in Japan: Conservative Domination". International Political Science Review. 16 (2): 199–209. doi:10.1177/019251219501600206. JSTOR 1601459.
  120. ^ a b Dean, Meryll (2002). Japanese legal system: text, cases & materials (2nd ed.). Cavendish. pp. 55–58, 131. ISBN 978-1-85941-673-0.
  121. ^ Kanamori, Shigenari (January 1, 1999). "German influences on Japanese Pre-War Constitution and Civil Code". European Journal of Law and Economics. 7 (1): 93–95. doi:10.1023/A:1008688209052.
  122. ^ McElwain, Kenneth Mori (August 15, 2017). "The Anomalous Life of the Japanese Constitution". Nippon.com. Archived from the original on August 11, 2019.
  123. ^ "The Japanese Judicial System". Office of the Prime Minister of Japan. July 1999. Archived from the original on January 16, 2013.
  124. ^ "Regions of Japan" (PDF). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 19, 2021. Retrieved January 13, 2021.
  125. ^ "Japan's Efforts at the United Nations (UN)". Diplomatic Bluebook 2017. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Archived from the original on February 14, 2021. Retrieved December 11, 2020.
  126. ^ Terada, Takashi (2011). "The United States and East Asian Regionalism". In Borthwick, Mark; Yamamoto, Tadashi (eds.). A Pacific Nation (PDF). Japan Center for International Exchange. ISBN 978-4-88907-133-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 6, 2020.
  127. ^ "Statistics from the Development Co-operation Report 2015". OECD. Archived from the original on January 23, 2019. Retrieved November 15, 2015.
  128. ^ "Global Diplomacy Index – Country Rank". Lowy Institute. Archived from the original on February 1, 2019. Retrieved February 26, 2024.
  129. ^ a b "US Relations with Japan". US Department of State. January 21, 2020. Archived from the original on May 3, 2019.
  130. ^ Szechenyi, Nicholas; Hosoya, Yuichi. "Working Toward a Free and Open Indo-Pacific". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Archived from the original on October 29, 2020. Retrieved May 8, 2024.
  131. ^ "Achieving the 'Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP)' Vision: Japan Ministry of Defense's Approach". Japan Ministry of Defence. Archived from the original on May 8, 2024. Retrieved May 8, 2024.
  132. ^ Chanlett-Avery, Emma (2018). Japan, the Indo-Pacific, and the "Quad" (Report). Chicago Council on Global Affairs.
  133. ^ Smith, Sheila A. (May 27, 2021). "The Quad in the Indo-Pacific: What to Know". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on May 3, 2023. Retrieved January 26, 2022.
  134. ^ "Japanese Territory, Northern Territories". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. April 4, 2014. Archived from the original on June 26, 2019.
  135. ^ "Japanese Territory, Takeshima". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. July 30, 2014. Archived from the original on June 13, 2019.
  136. ^ Fox, Senan (September 2016). "The Senkaku Shoto/Diaoyu Islands and Okinotorishima disputes: Ideational and material influences". China Information. 30 (3): 312–333. doi:10.1177/0920203X16665778.
  137. ^ "2024 Global Peace Index" (PDF). Institute for Economics & Peace. June 2024.
  138. ^ "Military expenditure (% of GDP) – Japan". World Bank. Archived from the original on August 11, 2022. Retrieved August 11, 2022.
  139. ^ "Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2022" (PDF). Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. April 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 23, 2023. Retrieved May 22, 2023.
  140. ^ "Japan: Article 9 of the Constitution". Library of Congress. February 2006. Archived from the original on November 13, 2019.
  141. ^ Teslik, Lee Hudson (April 13, 2006). "Japan and its military". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on November 11, 2020.
  142. ^ "Japan's Security Policy". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. April 6, 2016. Archived from the original on January 28, 2015.
  143. ^ "Abe offers Japan's help in maintaining regional security". Japan Herald. May 30, 2014. Archived from the original on May 31, 2014.
  144. ^ Liff, Adam P. (May 22, 2023). "No, Japan is not planning to 'double its defense budget'". Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on May 23, 2023.
  145. ^ Yoji, Koda (September 18, 2020). "Japan: Dealing with North Korea's Growing Missile Threat". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on November 11, 2020.
  146. ^ Gale, Alastair; Tsuneoka, Chieko (July 14, 2020). "China Provocations Hasten Japan's Military Revival". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on November 11, 2020.
  147. ^ "Who will conduct the investigation?". Supreme Court of Japan. 2005. Archived from the original on September 24, 2016. Retrieved November 1, 2018.
  148. ^ National Police Agency Police History Compilation Committee, ed. (1977). Japan post-war police history (in Japanese). Japan Police Support Association.
  149. ^ "Chapter IV. Maintenance of Public Safety and Disaster Countermeasures" (PDF). Japanese National Police Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 23, 2011. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
  150. ^ "Japan Coast Guard" (PDF). Japan Coast Guard. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 8, 2019. Retrieved July 8, 2019.
  151. ^ "Diet tightens laws on knives, guns". The Japan Times. November 29, 2008. Archived from the original on April 13, 2023.
  152. ^ Fisher, Max (July 23, 2012). "A Land Without Guns: How Japan Has Virtually Eliminated Shooting Deaths". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on December 16, 2015.
  153. ^ "Victims of intentional homicide, 1990–2018". UNODC. Archived from the original on March 28, 2022. Retrieved November 11, 2020.
  154. ^ "Kidnapping: 2018". UNODC. Archived from the original on October 21, 2020. Retrieved November 11, 2020.
  155. ^ "Sexual violence". UNODC. Archived from the original on November 7, 2020. Retrieved November 11, 2020.
  156. ^ "Robbery: 2018". UNODC. Archived from the original on November 11, 2020. Retrieved November 11, 2020.
  157. ^ Matsui, Shigenori (February 22, 2018). "Fundamental Human Rights and 'Traditional Japanese Values': Constitutional Amendment and Vision of the Japanese Society". Asian Journal of Comparative Law. 13 (1): 59–86. doi:10.1017/asjcl.2017.25.
  158. ^ "Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination started consideration of the initial and second periodic reports of Japan". Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. Archived from the original on May 8, 2024. Retrieved May 8, 2024.
  159. ^ Constitution of Japan  – via Wikisource.
  160. ^ "Japan Strengthening Its Presence in the International Community". Diplomatic Bluebook. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. 2021.
  161. ^ Human Rights Watch (2024). World Report 2024: Events of 2023. Seven Stories Press. p. 425. ISBN 978-1-64421-338-4.
  162. ^ Iida, Aki (2018). "Gender inequality in Japan: The status of women, and their promotion in the workplace". Corvinus Journal of International Affairs. 3 (3): 43–52. doi:10.14267/cojourn.2018v3n3a5.
  163. ^ Shiraishi, Sakiko; Mao, Frances (March 14, 2024). "Japan same-sex marriage ban ruled unconstitutional again by courts". BBC.
  164. ^ "Racial profiling, discrimination in Japan far more serious than stats reported by police". Mainichi Daily News. December 17, 2022. Archived from the original on May 8, 2024.
  165. ^ "2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Japan". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on September 24, 2023. Retrieved May 8, 2024.
  166. ^ "Japan: 'Will this day be my last?' The death penalty in Japan". Amnesty International. July 6, 2006.
  167. ^ "Japan: Long-standing discrimination unchanged" (PDF). Amnesty International. 2023.
  168. ^ "Japan's new deportation rule for asylum seekers raises rights concerns". Nikkei Asia. June 10, 2024.
  169. ^ "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023". International Monetary Fund. October 10, 2023. Archived from the original on October 29, 2023.
  170. ^ "Unemployment, total (% of the total labor force) (modeled ILO estimate): Japan". World Bank. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  171. ^ Komiya, Kantaro; Kihara, Leiha (October 31, 2021). "Japan confronts rising inequality after Abenomics". Reuters. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022.
  172. ^ Huang, Eustance (July 2, 2020). "Japan's middle class is 'disappearing' as poverty rises, warns economist". CNBC. Archived from the original on July 31, 2022.
  173. ^ Ímrohoroğlu, Selahattin; Kitao, Sagiri; Yamada, Tomoaki (February 2016). "Achieving fiscal balance in Japan". International Economic Review. 57 (1): 117–154. doi:10.1111/iere.12150. JSTOR 44075341.
  174. ^ "Monetary Tightening Poses Medium-Term Risks to Japan's Debt Dynamics". Fitch Ratings. May 6, 2022. Archived from the original on May 19, 2022.
  175. ^ "Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserve". IMF. Archived from the original on May 12, 2016. Retrieved October 10, 2021.
  176. ^ "List of importing markets for the product exported by Japan in 2022". International Trade Centre. Archived from the original on April 10, 2023. Retrieved August 11, 2023.
  177. ^ "List of supplying markets for the product imported by Japan in 2022". International Trade Centre. Archived from the original on April 10, 2023. Retrieved August 11, 2023.
  178. ^ "Exports of goods and services (% of GDP): Japan". World Bank. Archived from the original on November 30, 2017. Retrieved November 11, 2020.
  179. ^ a b c "Japanese Trade and Investment Statistics". Japan External Trade Organization. Archived from the original on March 1, 2021. Retrieved March 3, 2021.
  180. ^ "Economic survey of Japan 2008". OECD. Archived from the original on November 9, 2010. Retrieved August 25, 2010.
  181. ^ "Japan's Economy: Free at last". The Economist. July 20, 2006. Archived from the original on April 30, 2011.
  182. ^ "The 2018 World Cooperative Monitor: Exploring the Cooperative Economy" (PDF). International Co-operative Alliance. October 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 2, 2019.
  183. ^ Schwab, Klaus (2019). "The Global Competitiveness Report" (PDF). World Economic Forum. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 30, 2022.
  184. ^ "Trends in the Visitor Arrivals to Japan by Year". Japan National Tourism Organization. Archived from the original on November 26, 2020. Retrieved December 11, 2020.
  185. ^ a b "Statistical Annex". UNWTO World Tourism Barometer. 18 (5): 18. August–September 2020. doi:10.18111/wtobarometereng.2020.18.1.5.
  186. ^ "The Travel & Tourism Development Index 2021" (PDF). World Economic Forum. May 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 3, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
  187. ^ "Arable land (% of land area)". World Bank. Archived from the original on November 7, 2023. Retrieved November 11, 2020.
  188. ^ Nagata, Akira; Chen, Bixia (May 22, 2012). "Urbanites Help Sustain Japan's Historic Rice Paddy Terraces". Our World. Archived from the original on September 24, 2016.
  189. ^ Chen, Hungyen (2018). "The spatial patterns in long-term temporal trends of three major crops' yields in Japan". Plant Production Science. 21 (3): 177–185. doi:10.1080/1343943X.2018.1459752.
  190. ^ "Japan: Support to agriculture". Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation. OECD. 2020. Archived from the original on June 20, 2021. Retrieved November 11, 2020.
  191. ^ Nishimura, Karyn (January 1, 2020). "Grown from necessity: Vertical farming takes off in aging Japan". The Jakarta Post. Agence France-Presse. Archived from the original on February 5, 2021.
  192. ^ "The state of world fisheries and aquaculture" (PDF). Food and Agriculture Organization. 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 11, 2021. Retrieved May 25, 2020.
  193. ^ McCurry, Justin (April 24, 2017). "Japan to exceed bluefin tuna quota amid warnings of commercial extinction". The Guardian. Archived from the original on November 12, 2020.
  194. ^ "Japan resumes commercial whaling after 30 years". BBC News. July 1, 2019. Archived from the original on November 12, 2020.
  195. ^ a b "2022 Production Statistics". OICA. Archived from the original on April 8, 2023. Retrieved May 22, 2023.
  196. ^ "Manufacturing, value added (current US$)". World Bank. Archived from the original on January 7, 2020. Retrieved March 17, 2020.
  197. ^ He, Laura; Semans, Himari (February 2, 2024). "Is China now the world's top car exporter? It's complicated". CNN.
  198. ^ "Cars". The Observatory of Economic Complexity. Retrieved July 27, 2024.
  199. ^ Okada, Mizuki (September 5, 2020). "Japan Targets to Export More Ships, Revive Global Market Share". Japan Forward. Archived from the original on January 23, 2021.
  200. ^ "Services, value added (% of GDP)". World Bank. Archived from the original on May 16, 2022. Retrieved November 11, 2020.
  201. ^ "Fortune Global 500". Fortune. Archived from the original on November 17, 2020. Retrieved November 11, 2020.
  202. ^ "The World's Largest Public Companies". Forbes. Archived from the original on December 21, 2012. Retrieved November 11, 2020.
  203. ^ "How much does your country invest in R&D?". UNESCO. Archived from the original on January 23, 2019. Retrieved November 11, 2020.
  204. ^ "Japan's Science and Technology Research Spending at New High". Nippon.com. February 19, 2019. Archived from the original on March 3, 2021.
  205. ^ "All Nobel Prizes". Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on August 13, 2018. Retrieved November 11, 2020.
  206. ^ "Fields Medal". International Mathematical Union. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018. Retrieved November 11, 2020.
  207. ^ Wessling, Brianna (December 15, 2021). "10 most automated countries worldwide". The Robot Report. Archived from the original on August 18, 2023.
  208. ^ Fujiwara, Hiroshi (December 17, 2018). "Why Japan leads industrial robot production". International Federation of Robotics. Archived from the original on November 12, 2020.
  209. ^ "Science, technology, and innovation: Researchers by sex, per million inhabitants, per thousand labour force, per thousand total employment (FTE and HC)". UNESCO. Archived from the original on December 5, 2020. Retrieved November 11, 2020.
  210. ^ Pham, Sherisse (May 4, 2017). "How things got ugly for some of Japan's biggest brands". CNN Money. Archived from the original on December 4, 2020.
  211. ^ Nutt, Christian (June 19, 2015). "Japan's game market hits record high as consoles decline and mobile grows". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on September 22, 2018.
  212. ^ "PC games revenue to hit $42 billion in 2020 – DFC". GamesIndustry.biz. August 2, 2016. Archived from the original on February 10, 2022.
  213. ^ Howell, Elizabeth (May 19, 2016). "JAXA: Japan's Aerospace Exploration Agency". Space. Archived from the original on November 11, 2020.
  214. ^ "Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency Homepage". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. August 3, 2006. Archived from the original on March 21, 2007.
  215. ^ "Akatsuki". NASA. Archived from the original on November 12, 2020. Retrieved November 11, 2020.
  216. ^ Howell, Elizabeth (April 7, 2019). "Can Robots Build a Moon Base for Astronauts? Japan Hopes to Find Out". Space. Archived from the original on November 7, 2020.
  217. ^ "Japan Successfully Launches Lunar Explorer 'Kaguya'". Japan Corporate News Network. September 14, 2007. Archived from the original on April 30, 2011.
  218. ^ "Japan launches first lunar probe". BBC News. September 14, 2007. Archived from the original on May 11, 2011.
  219. ^ "Japanese probe crashes into Moon". BBC News. June 11, 2009. Archived from the original on September 30, 2009.
  220. ^ Wingfield-Hayes, Rupert (October 10, 2012). "Japan's high-spending legacy". BBC News. Archived from the original on August 9, 2021.
  221. ^ Shibayama, Takeru (2017). "Japan's transport planning at the national level, natural disasters, and their interplays". European Transport Research Review. 9 (3). doi:10.1007/s12544-017-0255-7.
  222. ^ "Privatization of JNR, 30 years on". The Japan Times. April 4, 2017. Archived from the original on April 4, 2017.
  223. ^ Sieloff, Sarah (October 7, 2020). "Japan's Bullet Trains Are Hitting a Speed Bump". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on October 8, 2020.
  224. ^ Falcus, Matt (April 22, 2019). "Asia's 9 busiest airports in 2019". CNN. Archived from the original on April 22, 2019.
  225. ^ "Top 50 World Container Ports". World Shipping Council. Archived from the original on November 19, 2020. Retrieved November 16, 2020.
  226. ^ "Chapter 7: Energy – 1. Supply and Demand" (PDF). Statistical Handbook of Japan 2021 (Report). Statistics Bureau of Japan. pp. 77, 79. Archived from the original on January 20, 2021. Retrieved January 8, 2021.
  227. ^ Tsukimori, Osamu (May 5, 2012). "Japan nuclear power-free as last reactor shuts". Reuters. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015.
  228. ^ "Nuclear power back in Japan for the first time since Fukushima". BBC News. August 11, 2015. Archived from the original on August 1, 2020.
  229. ^ "Mixed progress for Japan's nuclear plant restarts". Nuclear Engineering International. April 23, 2020. Archived from the original on June 9, 2020.
  230. ^ Thorarinsson, Loftur (April 2018). "A Review of the Evolution of the Japanese Oil Industry, Oil Policy and its Relationship with the Middle East" (PDF). Oxford Institute for Energy Studies. pp. 5–12. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 10, 2018.
  231. ^ Kucharski, Jeffrey; Unesaki, Hironobu (2017). "Japan's 2014 Strategic Energy Plan: A Planned Energy System Transition". Journal of Energy. 2017: 1–13. doi:10.1155/2017/4107614.
  232. ^ "Population Estimates Monthly Report November 2020". Statistics Bureau of Japan. June 20, 2019. Archived from the original on April 5, 2018. Retrieved April 29, 2021.
  233. ^ "Japan population drops by record number to 124.8 mil.: gov't". The Mainichi. July 10, 2019. Archived from the original on July 11, 2019.
  234. ^ a b c D'Ambrogio, Enrico (December 2020). "Japan's ageing society" (PDF). European Parliament. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 16, 2020.
  235. ^ Yoshida, Reiji (January 5, 2015). "Numbers tell tale of Japan's postwar rise and fall". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on January 7, 2015.
  236. ^ Noriko, Tsuya (June 2017). Low fertility in Japan—no end in sight (PDF) (Report). Vol. 131. East–West Center. pp. 1–4. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 2, 2022.
  237. ^ a b "Japan: Demographic Shift Opens Door to Reforms". International Monetary Fund. February 10, 2020. Archived from the original on February 12, 2020.
  238. ^ a b Walia, Simran (November 19, 2019). "The economic challenge of Japan's aging crisis". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on November 19, 2019.
  239. ^ Semuels, Alana (July 20, 2017). "The Mystery of Why Japanese People Are Having So Few Babies". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on July 20, 2017.
  240. ^ Wakatsuki, Yoko; Griffiths, James (May 7, 2018). "Number of children in Japan shrinks to new record low". CNN. Archived from the original on May 7, 2018.
  241. ^ Lufkin, Bryan (December 10, 2018). "More seniors, more foreigners: How Japan is changing". BBC. Archived from the original on July 27, 2019.
  242. ^ "New immigration rules to stir up Japan's regional rentals scene — if they work". REthink Tokyo. March 27, 2019. Archived from the original on July 2, 2019.
  243. ^ "Urban population (% of total population)". World Bank. Archived from the original on January 21, 2019. Retrieved November 19, 2020.
  244. ^ 東京都の人口（推計） [Population of Tokyo (estimate)]. Tokyo Metropolitan Government Bureau of Statistics Department. Archived from the original on October 2, 2018. Retrieved October 22, 2018.
  245. ^ "The World's Cities in 2016" (PDF). United Nations. March 12, 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 12, 2017.
  246. ^ Burgess, Chris (March 1, 2007). "Multicultural Japan? Discourse and the 'Myth' of Homogeneity". The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. Vol. 5, no. 3. Archived from the original on November 24, 2016.
  247. ^ "Population Estimates by Age (Five-Year Groups) and Sex". Statistics Bureau of Japan. Retrieved September 10, 2024.
  248. ^ Japanese Archipelago Human Population Genetics Consortium (2012). "The history of human populations in the Japanese Archipelago inferred from genome-wide SNP data with a special reference to the Ainu and the Ryukyuan populations". Journal of Human Genetics. 57 (12): 787–795. doi:10.1038/jhg.2012.114. PMID 23135232.
  249. ^ Ambrose, Drew; Armont, Rhiona-Jade (June 13, 2018). "Zainichi: Being Korean in Japan". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on November 28, 2020.
  250. ^ Chen, Lara Tien-shi (2005). "Chinese in Japan". Encyclopedia of Diasporas. pp. 680–688. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-29904-4_70. ISBN 978-0-306-48321-9.
  251. ^ Seiger, Fiona-Katharina (2019). "'Mixed' Japanese-Filipino identities under Japanese multiculturalism". Social Identities. 25 (3): 392–407. doi:10.1080/13504630.2018.1499225.
  252. ^ Tobace, Ewerthon (July 17, 2015). "The Brazilians winning in Japan". BBC News. Archived from the original on August 14, 2022.
  253. ^ Escala, Elard (February 13, 2014). "Peruvians Struggling to Find a Place in Japanese Society". Nippon.com. Archived from the original on February 13, 2014.
  254. ^ "Japan's hidden caste of untouchables". BBC News. October 23, 2015. Archived from the original on September 2, 2022.
  255. ^ a b c Fujita-Round, Sachiyo; Maher, John C. (2017). "Language Policy and Education in Japan". In McCarty, Teresa L.; May, Stephen (eds.). Language Policy and Political Issues in Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education (3rd ed.). Springer International Publishing. pp. 491–505. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-02344-1_36. ISBN 978-3-319-02343-4.
  256. ^ Miyagawa, Shigeru. "The Japanese Language". Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on April 13, 2000. Retrieved January 16, 2011.
  257. ^ "Japanese Educational System". Japan National Tourism Organization. Retrieved November 4, 2024.
  258. ^ Anderson, Mark (2019). "Language shift in the Ryukyu Islands". In Heinrich, Patrick; Ohara, Yumiko (eds.). Routledge Handbook of Japanese Sociolinguistics. Routledge. pp. 370–388. ISBN 978-1-315-21337-8.
  259. ^ Fujita-Round, Sachiyo; Maher, John (2017). "Language Policy and Education in Japan". In McCarty, T; May, S (eds.). Language Policy and Political Issues in Education. Springer. pp. 1–15. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-02320-5_36-2. ISBN 978-3-319-02320-5.
  260. ^ Ishihara, Masahide (2016). "Language Revitalization Efforts in the Ryukyus". In Ishihara, Masahide; Hoshino, Eiichi; Fujita, Yoko (eds.). Self-determinable Development of Small Islands. Springer. pp. 67–82. ISBN 978-981-10-0132-1.
  261. ^ Hudson, Mark (2014). "The ethnohistory and anthropology of 'modern' hunter-gatherers: north Japan (Ainu)". In Cummings, Vicki; Jordan, Peter; Zvelebil, Marek (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Hunter-Gatherers. Oxford University Press. p. 1058. ISBN 978-0-19-955122-4.
  262. ^ Inoue, Kyoko (2007). MacArthur's Japanese Constitution (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. pp. 132–133. ISBN 978-0-226-38391-0.
  263. ^ McQuaid, John. "A View of Religion in Japan". Japan Society. Archived from the original on January 23, 2016. Retrieved January 29, 2017.
  264. ^ "How religious are Japanese people?". Japan Today. October 27, 2013. Archived from the original on December 23, 2019.
  265. ^ Cavaliere, Paola (2019). "Women between Religion and Spirituality: Observing Religious Experience in Everyday Japanese Life". Religions. 10 (6): 377. doi:10.3390/rel10060377.
  266. ^ Shellnutt, Kate (May 29, 2018). "Why Japan Wants Its Past Persecution of Christians to Be World Renowned". Christianity Today. Archived from the original on May 3, 2019.
  267. ^ Shūkyō nenkan reiwa gan'nen-ban 宗教年鑑 令和元年版 [Religious Yearbook 2019] (PDF) (in Japanese). Agency for Cultural Affairs. 2019. p. 35. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 25, 2020.
  268. ^ Kato, Mariko (February 24, 2009). "Christianity's long history in the margins". The Japan Times.
  269. ^ Blakkarly, Jarni (July 13, 2016). "Shadow of surveillance looms over Japan's Muslims". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on December 5, 2020.
  270. ^ "No. of Muslims, mosques on the rise in Japan amid some misconceptions, prejudice". The Mainichi. November 29, 2019. Archived from the original on February 10, 2024.
  271. ^ "Japan 2018 International Religious Freedom Report" (PDF). US Department of State. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 28, 2021. Retrieved November 20, 2020.
  272. ^ "The Modernization and Development of Education in Japan". The History of Japan's Educational Development (PDF). Japan International Cooperation Agency Research Institute. March 2004. p. 23. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 5, 2020.
  273. ^ "Japan: Learning Systems". Center on International Education Benchmarking. Archived from the original on November 27, 2020. Retrieved November 22, 2020.
  274. ^ "QS World University Rankings – 2025". QS Quacquarelli Symonds Limited. Retrieved June 7, 2024.
  275. ^ "Compulsory nine-year school system kicks off in Japan". The Japan Times. June 10, 2016. Archived from the original on October 21, 2016.
  276. ^ a b "Japan – Student performance (PISA 2015)". OECD. Archived from the original on September 22, 2020. Retrieved December 6, 2020.
  277. ^ "Key Features of OECD Programme for International Student Assessment 2018 (PISA 2018)" (PDF). National Institute for Educational Policy Research. p. 2. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 9, 2020. Retrieved September 1, 2022.
  278. ^ "PISA – Results in Focus – Japan" (PDF). OECD. 2018. p. 1. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 3, 2019. Retrieved December 6, 2020.
  279. ^ "Government expenditure on education, total (% of government expenditure) – Japan". World Bank. Archived from the original on December 2, 2021. Retrieved September 7, 2022.
  280. ^ a b "Japan". OECD. Archived from the original on August 15, 2022. Retrieved January 29, 2023.
  281. ^ "Womenomics, Will women help solve Japan's economic problems?" (PDF). Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada. 2019. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 27, 2021.
  282. ^ Ikegami, Naoki (October 14, 2014). Universal Health Coverage for Inclusive and Sustainable Development: Lessons from Japan. World Bank Publications. pp. 16–17. ISBN 978-1-4648-0408-3.
  283. ^ Rodwin, Victor. "Health Care in Japan". New York University. Archived from the original on June 19, 2019. Retrieved March 10, 2007.
  284. ^ "Current healthcare expenditure (% of GDP): Japan". World Bank. Archived from the original on July 25, 2022. Retrieved July 25, 2022.
  285. ^ "Life expectancy at birth, male (years)". World Bank. Retrieved August 21, 2024.
  286. ^ "Life expectancy at birth, female (years)". World Bank. Retrieved August 21, 2024.
  287. ^ "Life expectancy at birth, total". World Bank. Archived from the original on May 1, 2022. Retrieved July 25, 2022.
  288. ^ "Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births): Japan". World Bank. Archived from the original on July 25, 2022. Retrieved July 25, 2022.
  289. ^ Tsugane, Shoichiro (July 2020). "Why has Japan become the world's most long-lived country: insights from a food and nutrition perspective". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 75: 921–928. doi:10.1038/s41430-020-0677-5.
  290. ^ Russell, Roxanne; Metraux, Daniel; Tohen, Mauricio (2017). "Cultural influences on suicide in Japan". Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 71 (1): 2–5. doi:10.1111/pcn.12428. PMID 27487762.
  291. ^ Akter, Shamima; Goto, Atsushi; Mizoue, Tetsuya (2017). "Smoking and the risk of type 2 diabetes in Japan: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Epidemiology. 27 (12): 553–561. doi:10.1016/j.je.2016.12.017.
  292. ^ Britnell, Mark (2015). In Search of the Perfect Health System. Palgrave. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-137-49661-4.
  293. ^ Haffner, John; Klett, Tomas; Lehmann, Jean-Pierre (2009). Japan's Open Future: An Agenda for Global Citizenship. Anthem Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-84331-311-3.
  294. ^ "Administration of Cultural Affairs in Japan". Agency for Cultural Affairs. Archived from the original on October 31, 2002. Retrieved May 11, 2011.
  295. ^ "Japan". UNESCO. Archived from the original on August 5, 2020. Retrieved December 11, 2020.
  296. ^ "The other superpower". The Guardian. June 1, 2001. Archived from the original on November 21, 2022.
  297. ^ Hoskin, Peter (January 31, 2015). "How Japan became a pop culture superpower". The Spectator. Archived from the original on December 10, 2019.
  298. ^ Schley, Matt (July 18, 2020). "'Pure Invention': How Japan's pop culture became the 'lingua franca' of the internet". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on December 14, 2021.
  299. ^ Bain, Marc (May 27, 2020). "How Japan's global image morphed from military empire to eccentric pop-culture superpower". Quartz. Archived from the original on October 21, 2021.
  300. ^ a b Arrowsmith, Rupert Richard (2010). Modernism and the Museum: Asian, African, and Pacific Art and the London Avant-Garde. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-959369-9.
  301. ^ Locher, Mira (2012). Traditional Japanese Architecture: An Exploration of Elements and Forms. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 26–27. ISBN 978-1-4629-0606-2.
  302. ^ Kazuo, Nishi; Kazuo, Hozumi (1995). What is Japanese Architecture?: A Survey of Traditional Japanese Architecture with a List of Sites and a Map. Kodansha. ISBN 978-4-7700-1992-9.
  303. ^ Abe, K (May 1954). "Early Western Architecture in Japan". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 13 (2): 13–18. doi:10.2307/987685. JSTOR 987685.
  304. ^ Inagaki, Eizo (2003). "Japan: Architecture after 1868 (Meiji and after)". Oxford Art Online. doi:10.1093/oao/9781884446054.013.90000369666.
  305. ^ Keene, Donald (2000). Seeds in the Heart: Japanese Literature from Earliest Times to the Late Sixteenth Century. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11441-7.
  306. ^ "Asian Studies Conference, Japan (2000)". Meiji Gakuin University. Archived from the original on January 16, 2013. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
  307. ^ "Heian Period (794–1185)". The Met. October 2002.
  308. ^ "Tale of the bamboo cutter". Calisphere. Retrieved November 23, 2020.
  309. ^ Totman, Conrad (2005). A History of Japan (2nd ed.). Blackwell. pp. 126–127. ISBN 978-1-4051-2359-4.
  310. ^ Royall, Tyler, ed. (2003). The Tale of Genji. Penguin Classics. pp. i–ii, xii. ISBN 978-0-14-243714-8.
  311. ^ Keene, Donald (1999). World Within Walls: Japanese Literature of the Pre-Modern Era, 1600–1867. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11467-7.
  312. ^ Keene, Donald. "Japanese literature". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved July 7, 2024.
  313. ^ "Japanese Confucian Philosophy". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. May 20, 2008.
  314. ^ Parkes, Graham (January 1, 2011). "Japanese aesthetics". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  315. ^ Malm, William P. (2000). Traditional Japanese music and musical instruments (New ed.). Kodansha International. pp. 31–45. ISBN 978-4-7700-2395-7.
  316. ^ Lo, Patrick (2016). "Katsu Watanabe, Akane Oki, and Yasushi Ishii, Librarians of the NHK Symphony Orchestra, Tokyo". Conversations with the World's Leading Orchestra and Opera Librarians. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 156–167.
  317. ^ "History of Taiko". Stanford Taiko. Retrieved November 24, 2020.
  318. ^ Campion, Chris (August 22, 2005). "J-Pop History". The Observer.
  319. ^ Caracciolo, Frankie (September 18, 2020). "What Karaoke Means to the Country That Invented It". Thrillist.
  320. ^ "Traditional Japanese theatre: overview". Time Out Tokyo. September 27, 2009.
  321. ^ Lee, Edwin (December 6, 2018). "The Oldest Surviving Form of Theater". The Atlantic.
  322. ^ "Television Viewing and Media Use Today: From "The Japanese and Television 2015" Survey" (PDF). NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute. April 2016.
  323. ^ Iwabuchi, Koichi, ed. (2004). Feeling Asian Modernities: Transnational Consumption of Japanese TV Dramas. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 9789622096318. JSTOR j.ctt2jc5b9.
  324. ^ "World Press Trends 2016" (PDF). WAN-IFRA. p. 19. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 24, 2020. Retrieved November 11, 2020.
  325. ^ Sharp, Jasper (2011). Historical Dictionary of Japanese Cinema. Scarecrow Press. p. xi.
  326. ^ Ingoglia, Jesse (May 21, 2014). "Godzilla: monster, metaphor, pop icon". New York Public Library.
  327. ^ Kalat, David (2017). "Introduction". A Critical History and Filmography of Toho's Godzilla Series (2nd ed.). McFarland.
  328. ^ Ito, Kinko (February 2005). "A History of Manga in the Context of Japanese Culture and Society". Journal of Popular Culture. 38 (3): 456–475. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.2005.00123.x.
  329. ^ Ro, Christine (June 12, 2019). "Did manga shape how the world sees Japan?". BBC.
  330. ^ Medina, Cynthia (December 5, 2019). "Why are manga outselling superhero comics?". Rutgers Today.
  331. ^ Hu, Tze-Yue (2010). "Miyazaki and Takahata anime cinema". Frames of Anime: culture and image-building. Hong Kong University Press. pp. 105–136.
  332. ^ Jozuka, Emiko (July 29, 2019). "Japanese anime: From 'Disney of the East' to a global industry worth billions". CNN.
  333. ^ Nakamura, Akemi (April 8, 2008). "National holidays trace roots to China, ancients, harvests". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on July 13, 2009.
  334. ^ Hindell, Juliet (January 10, 2000). "Happy Monday in Japan". BBC News.
  335. ^ "Japan's National Holidays in 2021". Nippon.com. June 10, 2020.
  336. ^ "Food & Drink in Japan". Frommer's. Retrieved December 1, 2020.
  337. ^ von Bargen, Hinnerk (2015). Street Foods. Wiley. p. 14.
  338. ^ Makalintal, Bettina (February 11, 2018). "A brief history of how curry ended up in Japan". Vice.
  339. ^ McCurry, Justin (June 18, 2010). "Ramen: Japan's super slurpy noodles". The Guardian.
  340. ^ Goldstein, Darra (2015). The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets. Oxford University Press. p. 777. ISBN 978-0-19-931339-6.
  341. ^ Fujita, Hiroko; Stallings, Fran (2008). Folktales from the Japanese Countryside. Libraries Unlimited. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-59158-488-9.
  342. ^ Batt, Carl A. (2014). Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology. Academic Press. p. 846. ISBN 978-0-12-384733-1.
  343. ^ Boulton, Christopher; Quain, David (2013). Brewing Yeast and Fermentation. John Wiley & Sons. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-118-68534-1.
  344. ^ Hosking, Richard (1995). A Dictionary of Japanese Food: Ingredients and Culture. Tuttle. p. 30. ISBN 0-8048-2042-2.
  345. ^ "Sumo: East and West". PBS. Archived from the original on March 7, 2007. Retrieved March 10, 2007.
  346. ^ Aoki, Mizuho (April 24, 2017). "Prewar bayonetting martial art makes a return to schools". The Japan Times.
  347. ^ Adler, David (February 21, 2023). "History of baseball in Japan". Major League Baseball.
  348. ^ Nagata, Yoichi; Holway, John B. (1995). "Japanese Baseball". In Palmer, Pete (ed.). Total Baseball (4th ed.). Viking Press. p. 547.
  349. ^ "Soccer as a Popular Sport: Putting Down Roots in Japan" (PDF). The Japan Forum. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
  350. ^ Reineking, Jim (May 25, 2018). "Every FIFA World Cup champion: Brazil, Germany, Italy historically dominate tournament". USA Today.
  351. ^ "Team Japan". Asian Football Confederation. Archived from the original on January 25, 2016. Retrieved March 2, 2014.
  352. ^ "Japan edge USA for maiden title". FIFA. July 17, 2011. Archived from the original on July 18, 2011.
  353. ^ Varcoe, Fred. "Japanese Golf Gets Friendly". Metropolis. Archived from the original on September 26, 2007. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
  354. ^ "Honda Wins F1 Championship in Its Final Season". Nippon.com. December 13, 2021. Archived from the original on December 13, 2021.
  355. ^ "Group A". World Rally Championship. Retrieved February 21, 2020.
  356. ^ "Japanese industry in MotoGP". MotoGP. October 11, 2017. Retrieved February 21, 2020.
  357. ^ Nagatsuka, Kaz (June 14, 2017). "Sato revels in glow of historic Indy 500 triumph". The Japan Times.
  358. ^ Newbold, James (June 7, 2018). "The man behind Japan's only Le Mans winner". Autosport.
  359. ^ Clarke, Len. "Japanese Omnibus: Sports". Metropolis. Archived from the original on September 26, 2007. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
  360. ^ "For the Love of Cars: Auto Racing in Japan". Tokyo Weekender. April 18, 2018.
  361. ^ "Olympic History in Japan". Japanese Olympic Committee. Retrieved January 7, 2011.
  362. ^ "2006 FIBA World Championship". FIBA. Archived from the original on September 3, 2006. Retrieved May 10, 2017.
  363. ^ "FIBA Basketball World Cup 2023". FIBA. Retrieved September 24, 2020.
  364. ^ "IOC selects Tokyo as host of 2020 Summer Olympic Games". International Olympic Committee. July 21, 2016.
  365. ^ "The Game – World Championships – FIVB Women's World Championships Finals". FIVB. Retrieved June 13, 2017.
  366. ^ "History". Asia Rugby. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
  367. ^ "Japan reaches out to the rest of Asia". Rugby World Cup. November 1, 2013. Archived from the original on December 17, 2013.

Government

General information

36°N 138°E / 36°N 138°E / 36; 138

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan&oldid=1257477393"