Nazism
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Nazism, or National Socialism (German: Nationalsozialismus, the first part pronounced as "Nazi"), is the ideology of the Nazi Party in Germany and related movements elsewhere.[1][2][3][4][5] Both the Nazi Party and the Nazi-led state were organized under the Führer principle ("leader principle"), a pyramidal structure with the Führer - Adolf Hitler - at the top, who appointed subordinate leaders for all branches of the party and the state and whose orders had the force of law.[6]
Etymology
The full name of Adolf Hitler's party was Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers' Party). The shorthand Nazi was formed from the first two syllables of the German pronunciation of the word "national" (IPA: [na-tsi̯-oˈ-naːl]).[7]
Position in the political spectrum
A majority of scholars identify Nazism in practice as a form of far-right politics.[8] Far-right themes in Nazism include the argument that superior people have a right to dominate over other people and purge society of supposed inferior elements.[9] Adolf Hitler and other proponents officially portrayed Nazism as being neither left- nor right-wing, but syncretic.[10][11] Hitler in Mein Kampf directly attacked both left-wing and right-wing politics in Germany, saying:
Today our left-wing politicians in particular are constantly insisting that their craven-hearted and obsequious foreign policy necessarily results from the disarmament of Germany, whereas the truth is that this is the policy of traitors [...] But the politicians of the Right deserve exactly the same reproach. It was through their miserable cowardice that those ruffians of Jews who came into power in 1918 were able to rob the nation of its arms.[12]
Hitler, when asked whether he supported the "bourgeois right-wing", claimed that Nazism was not exclusively for any class, and indicated that it favoured neither the left nor the right, but preserved "pure" elements from both "camps", stating: "From the camp of bourgeois tradition, it takes national resolve, and from the materialism of the Marxist dogma, living, creative Socialism".[13]
Origins
Völkisch nationalism
During his youth in Austria, Hitler was politically influenced by Austrian pan-Germanist proponent Georg Ritter von Schönerer, who advocated radical German nationalism, antisemitism, anti-Catholicism, anti-Slavism and anti-Habsburg views.[14] From von Schönerer and his followers, Hitler adopted for the Nazi movement the Heil greeting, the Führer title, and the model of absolute party leadership.[14] Hitler was also impressed with the populist antisemitism and anti-liberal bourgeois agitation of Karl Lueger, who as the mayor of Vienna during Hitler's time in the city used a rabble-rousing oratory style that appealed to the wider masses.[15] Unlike von Schönerer, however, Lueger was not a German nationalist, but a pro-Catholic Habsburg supporter.[15]
Racial theories and antisemitism
Ideology
Nationalism and racialism
Hitler declared that racial conflict against Jews was necessary to save Germany from suffering under them and dismissed concerns about such conflict being inhumane or an injustice:
We may be inhumane, but if we rescue Germany we have achieved the greatest deed in the world. We may work injustice, but if we rescue Germany then we have removed the greatest injustice in the world. We may be immoral, but if our people is rescued we have opened the way for morality.[16]
Nazi propagandist Joseph Goebbels frequently employed antisemitic rhetoric to underline this view: "The Jew is the enemy and destroyer of the purity of blood, the conscious destroyer of our race ... As socialists, we are opponents of the Jews, because we see, in the Hebrews, the incarnation of capitalism, of the misuse of the nation's goods."[17]
In Germany, the idea of creating a master-race resulted in efforts to "purify' the Deutsche Volk through eugenics; its culmination was compulsory sterilization or involuntary euthanasia of physically or mentally disabled people. The ideological justification was Adolf Hitler's view of Sparta (11th century – 195 BC) as the original Völkisch state; he praised their dispassionate destruction of congenitally deformed infants in maintaining racial purity:[18][19] The number of Germans of African descent was low; however, some of them were enlisted into Nazi organisations like the Hitler Youth and the Wehrmacht.[20]
Social class
Nazism rejected the Marxist concept of internationalist class struggle, but supported "class struggle between nations", and sought to resolve internal class struggle in the nation while it identified Germany as a proletarian nation fighting against plutocratic nations.[21]
In 1922, Adolf Hitler discredited other nationalist and racialist political parties as disconnected from the mass populace, especially lower and working-class young people:
The racialists were not capable of drawing the practical conclusions from correct theoretical judgements, especially in the Jewish Question. In this way, the German racialist movement developed a similar pattern to that of the 1880s and 1890s. As in those days, its leadership gradually fell into the hands of highly honourable, but fantastically naïve men of learning, professors, district counsellors, schoolmasters, and lawyers — in short a bourgeois, idealistic, and refined class. It lacked the warm breath of the nation's youthful vigour.[22]
Despite many working-class supporters and members, the appeal of the Nazi Party was arguably more effective with the middle class. Moreover, the financial collapse of the white collar middle-class of the 1920s figures much in their strong support of Nazism, thus the great percentage of declared middle-class support for the Nazis.[23] In the poor country that was the Weimar Republic of the early 1930s, the Nazi Party realised their socialist policies with food and shelter for the unemployed and the homeless — later recruited to the Brownshirt Sturmabteilung (SA — Storm Detachment).[23]
Sex and gender
Nazi ideology advocated excluding women from political involvement and confining them to the spheres of "Kinder, Küche, Kirche" (Children, Kitchen, Church).[citation needed]
Opposition to homosexuality
After the Night of the Long Knives, Hitler promoted Himmler and the SS, who then zealously suppressed homosexuality, saying: "We must exterminate these people root and branch ... the homosexual must be eliminated."[24] In 1936, Himmler established the "Reichszentrale zur Bekämpfung der Homosexualität und Abtreibung" ("Reich Central Office for the Combating of Homosexuality and Abortion").[25] The Nazi régime incarcerated some 100,000 homosexuals during the 1930s.[26] As concentration camp prisoners, homosexual men were forced to wear pink triangle badges.[27][28]
Religion
The Nazi Party Programme of 1920 guaranteed freedom for all religious denominations not hostile to the State and endorsed Positive Christianity to combat “the Jewish-materialist spirit”.[29]
Economics
Hitler had little interest in money or economics in general. After he became Reichskanzler on 30 January 1933 he never touched his salary from the state.[30] At the national level, Hitler left the subject to others. In the early days of the Nazi government Alfred Hugenberg, the party leader of the conservative German-National party, DNVP, was the Minister of Finance - the Reichswirtschaftsminister. He continued to serve in this position for a short time even after all parties except the NSDAP were prohibited in March 1933. In June Hugenberg was replaced by Kurt Schmitt, a man that had joined the Nazi Party in late spring of 1933. Schmitt's time in office was also short and in 1934 the president of the national German bank Hjalmar Schacht become the third man responsible for the economy of Nazi Germany. He lasted until 1938 when the first real Nazi, Walther Funk was appointed to the position. Afterwards, Schacht remained minister without portfolio until he was put in a concentration camp in 1944. Schacht survived and was later put on trial in Nürmberg where he was found "not guilty" on all counts. During Walther Funk's era as Minister of Finance, he had to follow a four year plan created by Herman Göring. Although this was not possible due to the war and the incompetence of Göring, the fall of the Third Reich had little to do with economics.[31]
Hitler believed that private ownership was useful in that it encouraged creative competition and technical innovation, but insisted that it had to conform to national interests and be "productive" rather than "parasitical".[32] Private property rights were conditional upon the economic mode of use; if it did not advance Nazi economic goals then the state could nationalize it.[33] Although the Nazis privatised public properties and public services, they also increased economic state control.[34] Under Nazi economics, free competition and self-regulating markets diminished; nevertheless, Hitler's social Darwinist beliefs made him reluctant to entirely disregard business competition and private property as economic engines.[35][36]
To tie farmers to their land, selling agricultural land was prohibited.[37] Farm ownership was nominally private, but discretion over operations and residual income were proscribed.[citation needed] That was achieved by granting business monopoly rights to marketing boards to control production and prices with a quota system.[38]
The Nazis sought to gain support of workers by declaring May Day, a day celebrated by organized labour, to be a paid holiday and held celebrations on 1 May 1933 to honour German workers.[39] The Nazis stressed that Germany must honour its workers.[40] The regime believed that the only way to avoid a repeat of the disaster of 1918 was to secure workers' support for the German government.[39] The Nazis wanted all Germans take part in the May Day celebrations in the hope that this would help break down class hostility between workers and burghers.[40] Songs in praise of labour and workers were played by state radio throughout May Day as well as an airshow in Berlin and fireworks.[40] Hitler spoke of workers as patriots who had built Germany's industrial strength and had honourably served in the war and claimed that they had been oppressed under economic liberalism.[41] Berliner Morgenpost that had been strongly associated with the political left in the past praised the regime's May Day celebrations.[41]
Bonfires were made of school children's differently colored caps as symbolic of the abolition of class differences.[42]
The Nazis continued social welfare policies initiated by the governments of the Weimar Republic and mobilized volunteers to assist those impoverished, "racially-worthy" Germans through the National Socialist People's Welfare organization.[43] This organization oversaw charitable activities, and became the largest civic organization in Nazi Germany.[43] Successful efforts were made to get middle-class women involved in social work assisting large families.[42] The Winter Relief campaigns acted as a ritual to generate public feeling.[44]
Anti-communism
Historians Ian Kershaw and Joachim Fest argue that in post-World War I Germany, the Nazis were one of many nationalist and fascist political parties contending for the leadership of Germany's anti-communist movement. The Nazis claimed that communism was dangerous to the well-being of nations because of its intention to dissolve private property, its support of class conflict, its aggression against the middle class, its hostility towards small businessmen, and its atheism.[45] Nazism rejected class conflict-based socialism and economic egalitarianism, favouring instead a stratified economy with social classes based on merit and talent, retaining private property, and the creation of national solidarity that transcends class distinction.[46]
During the 1920s, Hitler urged disparate Nazi factions to unite in opposition to "Jewish Marxism."[47] Hitler asserted that the "three vices" of "Jewish Marxism" were democracy, pacifism and internationalism.[48]
In 1930, Hitler said: "Our adopted term ‘Socialist' has nothing to do with Marxist Socialism. Marxism is anti-property; true Socialism is not."[49] In 1942, Hitler privately said: "I absolutely insist on protecting private property ... we must encourage private initiative".[50]
During the late 1930s and the 1940s, anti-communist regimes and groups that supported Nazism included the Falange in Spain; the Vichy regime and the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French) in France; and in Britain the Cliveden Set, Lord Halifax, the British Union of Fascists under Sir Oswald Mosley, and associates of Neville Chamberlain.[51]
Anti-capitalism
Hitler said in 1927, "We are socialists, we are enemies of today's capitalistic economic system for the exploitation of the economically weak, with its unfair salaries, with its unseemly evaluation of a human being according to wealth and property instead of responsibility and performance, and we are determined to destroy this system under all conditions."[52]
See also
References
Notes
- ^ Walter John Raymond. Dictionary of Politics, 1992. p. 327.
- ^ Fritzsche, Peter. Germans into Nazis. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998.
- ^ Kele, Max H. Nazis and Workers: National Socialist Appeals to German Labor, 1919–1933. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1972.
- ^ Payne, Stanley G. A History of Fascism, 1914–45. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995.
- ^ Stanley G. Payne. A History of Fascism, 1914–1945. Madison, Wisconsin, USA: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995. P. 601. (Page shows list of various "National Socialist" parties outside of Germany).
- ^ Kuntz, Dieter (2011), "Hitler and the functioning of the Third Reich", The Routledge History of the Holocaust, Routledge, p. 75
- ^ Lepage, Jean-Denis (2009), Hitler Youth, 1922-1945: An Illustrated History, McFarland, p. 9
- ^ Fritzsche, Peter. Germans into Nazis, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998; Eatwell, Roger, Fascism, A History, Viking-Penguin, 1996. pp. xvii-xxiv, 21, 26–31, 114–140, 352. Griffin, Roger, "Revolution from the Right: Fascism," in David Parker, ed., Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560-1991, London: Routledge, 2000
- ^ Oliver H. Woshinsky. Explaining Politics: Culture, Institutions, and Political Behavior. Oxon, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Routledge, 2008. p. 156.
- ^ Hitler, Adolf in Domarus, Max and Patrick Romane, eds. The Essential Hitler: Speeches and Commentary, Waulconda, Illinois: Bolchazi-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 2007, p. 170.
- ^ Koshar, Rudy. Social Life, Local Politics, and Nazism: Marburg, 1880-1935, University of North Carolina Press, 1986. p. 190.
- ^ Hitler, Adolf, Mein Kampf, Bottom of the Hill Publishing, 2010. p. 287.
- ^ Adolf Hitler, Max Domarus. The Essential Hitler: Speeches and Commentary. pp. 171, 172-173.
- ^ a b David Nicholls. Adolf Hitler: A Biographical Companion. Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA: University of North Carolina Press, 2000. pp. 236-237.
- ^ a b David Nicholls. Adolf Hitler: A Biographical Companion. Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA: University of North Carolina Press, 2000. pp. 159-160.
- ^ Richard A. Koenigsberg. Nations have the Right to Kill: Hitler, the Holocaust, and War. New York, New York, USA: Library of Social Science, 2009. p. 2.
- ^ Goebbels, Joseph; Mjölnir (1932). Die verfluchten Hakenkreuzler. Etwas zum Nachdenken. Munich: Franz Eher Nachfolger. English translation: Those Damned Nazis.
- ^ Hitler, Adolf (1961). Hitler's Secret Book. New York: Grove Press. pp. 8–9, 17–18. ISBN 0-394-62003-8. OCLC 9830111.
Sparta must be regarded as the first Völkisch State. The exposure of the sick, weak, deformed children, in short, their destruction, was more decent and in truth a thousand times more humane than the wretched insanity of our day which preserves the most pathological subject.
- ^ Mike Hawkins (1997). Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860–1945: nature as model and nature as threat. Cambridge University Press. p. 276. ISBN 0-521-57434-X. OCLC 34705047.
- ^ Clarence Lusane. Hitler's Black Victims: The Historical Experiences of Afro-Germans, European Blacks, Africans, and African Americans in the Nazi Era. Routledge, 2002. pp. 112, 113, 189.
- ^ David Nicholls. Adolf Hitler: a biographical companion. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO, 2000. P. 245.
- ^ Burleigh, Michael. The Third Reich: A New History, New York, USA: Hill and Wang, 2000. pp. 76-77.
- ^ a b Burleigh, Michael. The Third Reich: A New History, New York, USA: Hill and Wang, 2000. p. 77.
- ^ Plant, 1986. p. 99.
- ^ Pretzel, Andreas (2005). "Vom Staatsfeind zum Volksfeind. Zur Radikalisierung der Homosexuellenverfolgung im Zusammenwirken von Polizei und Justiz". In Zur Nieden, Susanne (ed.). Homosexualität und Staatsräson. Männlichkeit, Homophobie und Politik in Deutschland 1900-1945. Frankfurt/M.: Campus Verlag. p. 236. ISBN 978-3-593-37749-0.
- ^ Bennetto, Jason (1997-11-01). "Holocaust: Gay activists press for German apology". The Independent. Retrieved 2008-12-26. [dead link]
- ^ The Holocaust Chronicle, Publications International Ltd. p. 108.
- ^ Plant, Richard, The Pink Triangle: The Nazi War Against Homosexuals, Owl Books, 1988. ISBN 0-8050-0600-1.
- ^ J Noakes and G Pridham, Documents on Nazism, 1919-1945, London 1974
- ^ William S. Shirer, "The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich"
- ^ about Alfred Hugenberg, Kurt Schmitt, Hjalmar Schacht and Walther Funk - see the individual articles in the German Wikipedia
- ^ Overy, R.J., The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004. p. 403.
- ^ Peter Temin (November 1991>). Economic History Review, New Series. 44 (4): 573–593.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help); Missing or empty|title=(help) - ^ Guillebaud, Claude W. 1939. The Economic Recovery of Germany 1933-1938. London: MacMillan and Co. Limited.
- ^ Barkai, Avaraham 1990. Nazi Economics: Ideology, Theory and Policy. Oxford Berg Publisher.
- ^ Hayes, Peter. 1987 Industry and Ideology IG Farben in the Nazi Era. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Germany, 1871-1945: A Concise History By Raffael Scheck page 167 ISBN 978-1845208172 First Edition
- ^ Berman, Sheri. The Primacy of Politics: Social Democracy and the Making of Europe's Twentieth Century. p. 146. ISBN 978-0521521109.
- ^ a b Fritzsche, p.45.
- ^ a b c Fritzsche, p. 46.
- ^ a b Fritzsche, p. 47.
- ^ a b Richard Grunberger, The 12-Year Reich, p 46, ISBN 003-076435-1
- ^ a b Fritzsche, p. 51.
- ^ Richard Grunberger, The 12-Year Reich, p 79, ISBN 003-076435-1
- ^ Bendersky, Joseph W. A History of Nazi Germany: 1919-1945. 2nd ed. Burnham Publishers, 2000. p. 72.
- ^ Bendersky, Joseph W. A History of Nazi Germany: 1919-1945. 2nd ed. Burnham Publishers, 2000. p. 40.
- ^ "They must unite, [Hitler] said, to defeat the common enemy, Jewish Marxism." A New Beginning, Adolf Hitler, Völkischer Beobachter. February 1925. Cited in: Toland, John (1992). Adolf Hitler. Anchor Books. p. 207. ISBN 0-385-03724-4.
- ^ Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler, the Germans, and the Final Solution. Yale University Press. p. 53. ISBN 0-300-12427-9.
- ^ Carsten, Francis Ludwig The Rise of Fascism, 2nd ed. University of California Press, 1982. p. 137. Quoting: Hitler, A., Sunday Express, September 28, 1930.
- ^ Hitler, A. (2000). "March 24, 1942". Hitler's Table Talk, 1941–1944: His Private Conversations. Enigma Books. pp. 162–163. ISBN 1-929631-05-7.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Carroll Quigley, Tragedy and Hope, 1966. p. 619.
- ^ Toland, John (1976). Adolf Hitler. Doubleday. pp. 224–225. ISBN 978-0385037242.
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Bibliography
- Fritzsche, Peter (1990). Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505780-5.
- Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (2004) [1985]. The Occult Roots of Nazism: Secret Aryan Cults and Their Influence on Nazi Ideology: The Ariosophists of Austria and Germany, 1890–1935. Wellingborough, England: The Aquarian Press. ISBN 0-85030-402-4 and ISBN 1-86064-973-4.
- Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (2003) [2002]. Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity. New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-3155-4.
- Klemperer, Victor (1947). LTI - Lingua Tertii Imperii.
- McNab, Chris (2009). The Third Reich. Amber Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-906626-51-8.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Paxton, Robert (2005). The Anatomy of Fascism. London: Penguin Books Ltd. ISBN 0-14-101432-6.
- Peukert, Detlev (1989). Inside Nazi Germany: Conformity, Opposition, and Racism in Everyday Life. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04480-5.
- Redles, David (2005). Hitler's Millennial Reich: Apocalyptic Belief and the Search for Salvation. New York: University Press. ISBN 0-8147-7524-1.
- Steigmann-Gall, Richard (2003). The Holy Reich: Nazi Conceptions of Christianity, 1919–1945. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Steinweis, Alan. Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany. Harvard University Press, 2008
External links
- Hitler's National Socialist Party platform
- NS-Archiv, a large collection of scanned original Nazi documents.
- WWII: Nazi Thugs and Thinkers - slideshow by Life magazine
- Exhibit on Hitler and the Germans - slideshow by The New York Times
- Jonathan Meades (1994): Jerry Building - Unholy Relics of Nazi Germany (in 4 parts)
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