Republic of Ireland: Difference between revisions

International rankings
Economy
Politics
Society
Health
Notes
	↓ indicates rank is in reverse order (e.g. 1st is lowest); * joint with one or more other countries; † per capita; ‡ per 1000 people; †† per woman; ‡‡ per 1000 live births; †‡per 100,000 people; ♂ indicates males, ♀ indicates females

Ireland
*Éire*
Ireland Éire
	Flag Coat of arms
	Anthem: [Amhrán na bhFiann] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) ; The Soldier's Song
	Location of Republic of Ireland (dark green) – in Europe (light green & dark grey); – in the European Union (light green) – [Legend]
Capital and largest city	Dublin
Official languages	Irish, English
Ethnic groups	87.4% Irish, 7.5% Other White (British, Polish, other) 1.3% Asian, 1.1% Black, 1.1% mixed, 1.6% unspec.
Demonym(s)	Irish
Government	Republic and Parliamentary democracy
• President	Mary McAleese
• Taoiseach	Brian Cowen, TD
• Tánaiste	Mary Coughlan, TD
Independence from the United Kingdom
• Declared	24 April 1916
• Ratified	21 January 1919
• Recognised	6 December 1922
• Current constitution	29 December 1937
Area
• Total	70,273 km2 (27,133 sq mi) (120th)
• Water (%)	2.00
Population
• 2008 estimate	4,422,100
• 2006 census	4,239,848 (121st)
• Density	60.3/km2 (156.2/sq mi) (139th)
GDP (PPP)	2008 estimate
• Total	$188.112 billion
• Per capita	$42,539
GDP (nominal)	2008 estimate
• Total	$273.328 billion
• Per capita	$61,809
HDI (2006)	0.960; Error: Invalid HDI value (5th)
Currency	Euro (€)¹ (EUR)
Time zone	UTC+0 (WET)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+1 (IST (WEST))
Driving side	left
Calling code	353
ISO 3166 code	IE
Internet TLD	.ie2
	Before 2002: Irish pound.; The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union Member states.;

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Ireland (Irish: Éire, Irish pronunciation: [ˈeːrʲə]) is an island country in north-western Europe. The modern sovereign state occupies about five-sixths of the island of Ireland, which was partitioned on 3 May 1921.^[5] It is a parliamentary democracy and a republic. It is bordered by Northern Ireland to the north east, the Irish Sea to the east, St George's Channel to the south-east, the Celtic Sea to the south and by the Atlantic Ocean to the west and north. The name of the state is "Ireland", while the description the Republic of Ireland is sometimes used when there is a need to differentiate the state from the island.^[6]

The Irish Free State was established on 6 December 1922, giving Ireland a measure of independence from the UK. The Irish Free State became known as Ireland on 29 December 1937.^[7] In 1949, Ireland became a republic and left the British Commonwealth.^[8] It had already ceased to participate in that organisation.

Ireland was one of the poorest countries in Western Europe and had high emigration but in contrast to many other states in the period remained financially solvent as a result of low government expenditure. The protectionist economy was opened in the late 1950s and Ireland joined the European Community (now the European Union) in 1973. An economic crisis led Ireland to start large-scale economic reforms in the late 1980s. Ireland reduced taxation and regulation dramatically compared to other EU countries.^[9]

Ireland is the 32th Economic Power in the world^[10], and despite the reduced economic growth in 2008, Ireland today has the sixth highest gross domestic product per capita and the eighth highest per capita considering purchasing power parity,^[11]^[12] and has the fifth highest Human Development Index rank in the world. The country also boasts the highest quality of life in the world, ranking first in the Economist Intelligence Unit’s Quality-of-life index. Ireland was ranked sixth on the Global Peace Index. Ireland also has high rankings for its education system, political freedom and civil rights, press freedom and economic freedom; it was also ranked fourth from the bottom on the Failed States Index, being one of the few "Sustainable" states in the world.

Ireland is a member of the EU, the OECD, and the UN.

Name

Article 4 of the Irish constitution, which was adopted in 1937 provides that "the name of the state is Éire, or, in the English language, Ireland".^[13] For all official purposes, including international treaties and in other legal documents, where the language of the documents is English, the Irish government uses the name Ireland. The same is true in respect of the name Éire for documents written in Irish. Institutions of the European Union follow the same practice. Since Irish became an official EU language on 1 January 2007, at EU meetings name plates for the state read as Éire - Ireland, just as the two official names are used on Irish passports.^[14]

The Republic of Ireland Act 1948 provided a description of the state as "the Republic of Ireland" (Irish: Poblacht na hÉireann) The Act was intended primarily to declare that Ireland was a republic rather than a form of constitutional monarchy. In 1989 the Irish Supreme Court rejected an extradition warrant that used the name "Republic of Ireland". Justice Walsh ruled: "if the courts of other countries seeking the assistance of this country are unwilling to give this State its constitutionally correct and internationally recognised name, then in my view, the warrants should be returned to such countries until they have been rectified."^[15]

The current sovereign state has been known by a range of other names, all of which are still sometimes used unofficially. The whole island was unilaterally proclaimed an independent republic by rebels in 1916 called the Irish Republic (Irish: Poblacht na hÉireann). Following the 1918 general election, that proclamation was ratified by the Irish Deputies of its First Dáil Parliament. Between 1921 and 1922, when the British government legislated to establish Ireland as an autonomous region of the United Kingdom, it was named Southern Ireland. Following the Anglo-Irish Treaty, from 1922 until 1937, as a dominion in the British Commonwealth, it was styled as the Irish Free State (Irish: Saorstát Éireann). That name was abolished with the adoption of the current Irish constitution. Other colloquial names such as the Free State, Twenty-Six Counties and The South (a name frequently used by people in Northern Ireland) are also often used.

History

Early history until 1923

A long cold climatic spell prevailed until the end of the last glacial period about 9,000 years ago, and most of Ireland was covered with ice. Sea-levels were lower then, and Ireland, as with its neighbour Britain, rather than being islands, were part of a greater continental Europe. Mesolithic stone age inhabitants arrived some time after 8000 BC. Agriculture arrived with the Neolithic circa 4500 to 4000 BC, when sheep, goats, cattle and cereals were imported from southwest continental Europe. At the Céide Fields in County Mayo, an extensive Neolithic field system – arguably the oldest in the world^[16] – has been preserved beneath a blanket of peat. Consisting of small fields separated from one another by dry-stone walls, the Céide Fields were farmed for several centuries between 3500 and 3000 BC. Wheat and barley were the principal crops.^[17]

The Bronze Age, which began around 2500 BC, saw the production of elaborate gold as well as bronze ornaments, weapons and tools. The Iron Age in Ireland was supposedly associated with people known as Celts. They are traditionally thought to have colonised Ireland in a series of waves between the 8th and 1st centuries BC, with the Gaels, the last wave of Celts, conquering the island and dividing it into five or more kingdoms. Many scientists and academic scholars now favour a view that emphasises cultural diffusion from overseas over significant colonisation such as what Clonycavan Man was reported to be.^[18]^[19]

The Romans referred to Ireland as Hibernia^[20] and/or Scotia.^[21] Ptolemy in AD 100 recorded Ireland's geography and tribes.^[22] Native accounts are confined to Irish poetry, myth, and archaeology. The exact relationship between Rome and the tribes of Hibernia is unclear; the only references are a few Roman writings.

In early medieval times, a monarch (also known as the High King) presided over the (then five: the fifth being Meath) provinces of Ireland. These provinces too had their own kings, who were at least nominally subject to the monarch, who resided at Tara. The written judicial system was the Brehon Law, and it was administered by professional learned jurists who were known as the Brehons.

The approximate area of the Dál Riata (shaded)

According to early medieval chronicles, in 431, Bishop Palladius arrived in Ireland on a mission from Pope Celestine I to minister to the Irish "already believing in Christ." The same chronicles record that Saint Patrick, Ireland's patron saint, arrived in 432. There is continued debate over the missions of Palladius and Patrick, but the general consensus is that they both existed.^[23]

Around the 5th century, Gaelic language and culture spread from Ireland to Scotland—the Dál Riata. The Gaels soon spread out to most of the rest of the country. The cultural and linguistic dominance of the "Scoti" is the origin of the name "Scotland". The territories of the Gaels and the native Picts merged together to form the Kingdom of Alba. The modern Scottish people have therefore been influenced historically by both the Irish people and the English people to the south. The Isle of Man and the Manx people also came under massive Gaelic influence in their history.

The druid tradition collapsed in the face of the spread of the new religion.^[24] Irish Christian scholars excelled in the study of Latin and Greek learning and Christian theology in the monasteries that flourished, preserving Latin and Greek learning during the Early Middle Ages.^[24]^[25] The arts of manuscript illumination, metalworking, and sculpture flourished and produced such treasures as the Book of Kells, ornate jewellery, and the many carved stone crosses that dot the island. From the 9th century, waves of Viking raiders plundered monasteries and towns, adding to a pattern of endemic raiding and warfare. Eventually Vikings settled in Ireland, and established many towns, including the modern day cities of Dublin, Cork, Limerick and Waterford.

The first recorded Viking raid in Irish history occurred in 795 when Vikings from Norway looted the island. Early Viking raids were generally small in scale and quick. These early raids interrupted the golden age of Christian Irish culture starting the beginning of two hundred years of intermittent warfare, with waves of Viking raiders plundering monasteries and towns throughout Ireland. Most of the early raiders came from the fjords of western Norway.

The Vikings were expert sailors, who travelled in Longships, and by the early 840s, had begun to establish settlements along the Irish coasts and to spend the winter months there. Vikings founded settlements in several places; most famously in Dublin. Written accounts from this time (early to mid 840s) show that the Vikings were moving further inland to attack (often using rivers) and then retreating to their coastal headquarters.

In 852, the Vikings landed in Dublin Bay and established a fortress. After several generations a group of mixed Irish and Norse ethnic background arose (the so-called Gall-Gaels, Gall then being the Irish word for "foreigners").

However, the Vikings never achieved total domination of Ireland, often fighting for and against various Irish kings. The Battle of Clontarf in 1014 marked the beginning of the decline of Viking power in Ireland. However the towns that the Vikings had founded continued to flourish and trade became an important part of the Irish economy.

From 1169, Ireland was entered by Cambro-Norman warlords, led by Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke (Strongbow),^[26] on an invitation from the then King of Leinster. In 1171, King Henry II of England came to Ireland, using the 1155 Bull Laudabiliter issued to him by then Pope Adrian IV, to claim sovereignty over the island, and forced the Cambro-Norman warlords and some of the Gaelic Irish kings to accept him as their overlord. From the 13th century, English law began to be introduced. By the late 13th century the Norman-Irish had established the feudal system throughout most of lowland Ireland. Their settlement was characterised by the establishment of baronies, manors, towns and large land-owning monastic communities, and the county system. The towns of Dublin, Cork, Wexford, Waterford, Limerick, Galway, New Ross, Kilkenny, Carlingford, Drogheda, Sligo, Athenry, Arklow, Buttevant, Carlow, Carrick-on-Suir, Cashel, Clonmel, Dundalk, Enniscorthy, Kildare, Kinsale, Mullingar, Naas, Navan, Nenagh, Thurles, Wicklow, Trim and Youghal were all under Norman-Irish control.

In the 14th century the English settlement went into a period of decline and large areas, for example Sligo, were re-occupied by Gaelic septs. The medieval English presence in Ireland (The Pale) was deeply shaken by the Black Death, which arrived in Ireland in 1348.^[27] From the late 15th century English rule was once again expanded, first through the efforts of the Earls of Kildare and Ormond then through the activities of the Tudor State under Henry VIII and Mary and Elizabeth. This resulted in the complete conquest of Ireland by 1603 and the final collapse of the Gaelic social and political superstructure at the end of the 17th century, as a result of English and Scottish Protestant colonisation in the Plantations of Ireland, and the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Williamite War in Ireland. Approximately 600,000 people, nearly half the Irish population, died during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland.^[28]

The war in Ireland began with the rebellion of the Irish of Ulster in October 1641, during which thousands of Scots and English Protestant settlers were killed. The rebellion spread throughout the country and at Kilkenny in 1642 the association of The Confederate Catholics of Ireland was formed to organise the Irish Catholic war effort. The Confederation was essentially an independent state and was a coalition of all shades of Irish Catholic society, both Gaelic and Old English. The Irish Confederates professed to side with the English Royalists during the ensuing civil wars, but mostly fought their own war in defence of the Irish Catholic landed class's interests.

The Confederates ruled much of Ireland as a de facto sovereign state until 1649, and proclaimed their loyalty to Charles I. From 1641 to 1649, the Confederates fought against Scottish Covenanter and English Parliamentarian armies in Ireland. The Confederates, in the context of civil war in England, were loosely allied with the English Royalists, but were divided over whether to send military help to them in the English Civil War. Ultimately, they never sent troops to England, but did send an expedition to help the Scottish Royalists, sparking the Scottish Civil War.

The wars produced an extremely fractured array of forces in Ireland. The Protestant forces were split into three main factions (English Royalist, English Parliamentarian and Scottish Covenanter) as a result of the civil wars in England and Scotland. The Catholic Confederates themselves split on more than one occasion over the issue of whether their first loyalty was to the Catholic religion or to King Charles I (See The principal factions in the war).

The wars ended in the defeat of the Confederates. They and their English Royalist allies were defeated during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland by the New Model Army under Oliver Cromwell in 1649-53.^[29] The wars following the 1641 revolt caused massive loss of life in Ireland, comparable in the country's history only with the Great Famine of the 1840s. The ultimate winner, the English parliament, arranged for the mass confiscation of land owned by Irish Catholics as punishment for the rebellion and to pay for the war. Although some of this land was returned after 1660 on the Restoration of the monarchy in England, the period marked the effective end of the old Catholic landed class

After the Irish Rebellion of 1641, Irish Catholics and nonconforming Protestants were barred from voting or attending the Irish Parliament. Under the penal laws (introduced from 1691) no Irish Catholic could sit in the Parliament of Ireland, even though some 90% of Ireland's population was native Irish Catholic. This ban was followed by others in 1703 and 1709 as part of a comprehensive system disadvantaging the Catholic community, and to a lesser extent, Protestant dissenters.^[30] The new English Protestant ruling class was known as the Protestant Ascendancy. Towards the end of the 18th century the (entirely Protestant) Irish Parliament attained a greater degree of independence from the British Parliament than it had previously held.

In 1798, many members of the Protestant dissenter tradition made common cause with Catholics in a rebellion inspired and led by the Society of United Irishmen. It was staged with the aim of creating a fully independent Ireland as a state with a republican constitution. Despite assistance from France the Irish Rebellion of 1798 was put down by British forces.

In 1800, the British and subsequently the Irish Parliament passed the Act of Union which, in 1801, merged the Kingdom of Ireland and the Kingdom of Great Britain to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The passage of the Act in the Irish Parliament was achieved with substantial majorities, in part (according to contemporary documents) through bribery, namely the awarding of peerages and honours to critics to get their votes.^[31] Thus, Ireland became part of an extended United Kingdom, ruled directly by the UK Parliament in London.

The Great Famine, which began in the 1840s, caused the deaths of one million Irish people, and caused over a million to emigrate.^[32] By the late 1840s, as a result of the famine, half of all immigrants to the United States originated from Ireland. A total of 35 million Americans (12% of total population) reported Irish ancestry in the 2005 American Community Survey.^[33] Mass emigration became entrenched as a result of the famine and the population continued to decline until late in the 20th century. The pre-famine peak was over 8 million recorded in the 1841 census.^[34] The population has never returned to this level.^[35]

The 19th and early 20th century saw the rise of Irish nationalism among the Roman Catholic population. Daniel O'Connell led a successful campaign for Catholic Emancipation, which was passed by the United Kingdom parliament. A subsequent campaign for repeal of the Act of Union failed. Later in the century Charles Stewart Parnell and others campaigned for self-government within the Union or "Home Rule". Unionists, especially those located in the Northern part of the island, who considered themselves to be British as well as Irish, were strongly opposed to Home Rule, under which they felt they would be dominated by Catholic and Southern Irish interests.^[36] To prevent Home Rule the Ulster Volunteers were formed in 1913 under the leadership of Lord Carson. This was followed by the Irish Volunteers, formed in 1914 to support the enactment of the Home Rule Act, which was suspended on the outbreak of World War I. Under John Redmond the National Volunteers broke away from the Irish Volunteers to serve with the Irish regiments of the New British Army.^[37]

Armed rebellions, such as the Easter Rising of 1916 and the Irish War of Independence of 1919, occurred in this period. In 1921, a treaty was concluded between the British Government and the leaders of the Irish Republic. The Anglo-Irish Treaty recognised the two-state solution created in the Government of Ireland Act 1920. Northern Ireland was presumed to form a home rule state within the new Irish Free State unless it opted out. Northern Ireland had a majority Protestant population and opted out as expected, choosing to rejoin the United Kingdom, incorporating, however, within its border a significant Catholic and nationalist minority.^[38] A Boundary Commission was set up to decide on the boundaries between the two Irish states, though it was subsequently abandoned after it recommended only minor adjustments to the border. Disagreements over some provisions of the treaty led to a split in the nationalist movement and subsequently to the Irish Civil War. The Civil War ended in 1923 with the defeat of the anti-treaty forces.

History since partition

Irish Independence: The Irish Free State, Éire, Ireland

The Anglo-Irish Treaty was ratified by the Dáil in January 1922 by a vote of 64 - 57. The minority refused to accept the result and this resulted in the Irish Civil War, which lasted until 1923. On 6 December 1922, in the middle of the Civil War, the Irish Free State came into being. During its early years the new state was governed by the victors of the Civil War. However, in the 1930s Fianna Fáil, the party of the opponents of the treaty, was elected into government. The party proposed, and the electorate accepted in a referendum in 1937, a new constitution which renamed the state "Éire or in the English language, Ireland" (article 4 of the Constitution).

The state was neutral during World War II, which was known internally as The Emergency. It offered some assistance to the Allies, especially in Northern Ireland. It is estimated^[39] that around 50,000 volunteers from Éire/Ireland joined the British armed forces during the Second World War. In 1949, Ireland declared itself to be a republic. Ireland experienced large-scale emigration in the 1950s and again in the 1980s. From 1987 the economy improved and the 1990s saw the beginning of unprecedented economic success, in a phenomenon known as the "Celtic Tiger".^[40] By 2007 it had become the fifth richest country (in terms of GDP per capita) in the world, and the second richest in the European Union, moving from being a net recipient of the budget to becoming a net contributor during the next budget round (2007–13), and from a country of net emigration to one of net immigration. In October 2006, there were talks between Ireland and the U.S. to negotiate a new immigration policy between the two countries, in response to the growth of the Irish economy and desire of many U.S. citizens who sought to move to Ireland for work.^[41]

Irish Free State, Irish Republic and the Republic of Ireland

Ireland is the successor-state to the Dominion called the Irish Free State. That Dominion came into being when all of the island of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 6 December 1922. However, the following day the Parliament of Northern Ireland exercised its right under the Anglo-Irish Treaty to opt back into the United Kingdom.^[42] This action followed four attempts to introduce devolved autonomous government over the whole island of Ireland (in 1886, 1893, 1914 and 1920) and the Partition of Ireland. The Irish Free State was abolished when Ireland was formally established on 29 December 1937, the day the Constitution of Ireland came into force.

Irish independence from Britain in 1922 was preceded by the War of Independence and the Easter Rising of 1916, when Irish volunteers and the Irish Citizen Army took over sites in Dublin and Galway under terms expressed in the Proclamation of the Irish Republic. The seven signatories of this proclamation, Patrick Pearse, Thomas MacDonagh, Thomas Clarke, Sean MacDiarmada, Joseph Plunkett, Eamonn Ceannt and James Connolly, were executed, along with nine others, and thousands were interned precipitating the Irish War of Independence.

Early background

From the Act of Union on 1 January 1801 until 6 December 1922, Ireland had been part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. During the Great Famine from 1845 to 1849 the island's population of over 8 million fell by 30 percent. Under British rule, one million Irish died of starvation and another 1.5 million emigrated,^[43] which set the pattern of emigration for the century to come and would result in a constant decline up to the 1960s. From 1874, but particularly from 1880 under Charles Stewart Parnell, the Irish Parliamentary Party moved to prominence through widespread agrarian agitation that won improved tenant land reforms and with its attempts to win two Home Rule Bills, which would have granted Ireland limited national autonomy within the United Kingdom. These nevertheless led to the “grass-roots” control of national affairs under the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898 previously in the hands of landlord dominated grand juries.

Home Rule statute

Home Rule seemed certain when the Parliament Act 1911 abolished the veto of the House of Lords, and John Redmond secured the Third Home Rule Act 1914. The Unionist movement, however, had been growing since 1886 among Irish Protestants after the introduction of the first home rule bill, fearing that they would face discrimination and lose economic and social privileges if Irish Catholics were to achieve real political power. Though Irish unionism existed throughout the whole of Ireland, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century unionism was particularly strong in parts of Ulster, where industrialisation was more common in contrast to the more agrarian rest of the island. (Any tariff barriers would, it was feared, most heavily hit that region.) In addition, the Protestant population was more strongly located in Ulster, with unionist majorities existing in about four counties.

Mounting resistance

The First Dáil Éireann taken at the Mansion House, Dublin on the 21 January 1919.

Under the leadership of the Dublin-born Sir Edward Carson of the Irish Unionist Party and the northerner Sir James Craig of the Ulster Unionist Party, unionists became strongly militant in order to oppose the Coercion of Ulster. After the Home Rule Bill passed parliament in May 1914, to avoid rebellion with Ulster, the British Prime Minister H. H. Asquith introduced an Amending Bill reluctantly conceded to by the Irish Party leadership, providing for the temporary exclusion of Ulster from the workings of the bill for a trial period of six years, with an as yet undecided new set of measures to be introduced for the area to be temporarily excluded. Though it received the Royal Assent and was placed on the statute books in 1914, the implementation of the Third Home Rule Act was suspended until after the Great War. (The war at that stage was expected to be ended by 1915, not the four years it did ultimately last.) For the prior reasons of ensuring the implementation of the Act at the end of the war, Redmond and his Irish National Volunteers supported the Allied cause, and 175,000 joined Irish regiments of the 10th (Irish), 16th (Irish), while Unionists joined the 36th (Ulster) divisions of the New British Army.^[44]

In January 1919, after the December 1918 general election, 73 of Ireland's 106 MPs elected were Sinn Féin members who refused to take their seats in the British House of Commons. Instead, they set up an Irish parliament called Dáil Éireann. This Dáil in January 1919 issued a Declaration of Independence and proclaimed an Irish Republic. The Declaration was mainly a restatement of the 1916 Proclamation with the additional provision that Ireland was no longer a part of the United Kingdom. The new Irish Republic was recognised internationally only by the Russian Republic. The Republic's Aireacht (ministry) sent a delegation under Ceann Comhairle Seán T. O'Kelly to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, but it was not admitted.

Establishment of Irish Free State

After the bitterly fought War of Independence and truce called in July 1921, representatives of the British government and the Irish treaty delegates, led by Arthur Griffith, Robert Barton and Michael Collins, negotiated the Anglo-Irish Treaty in London from 11 October – 6 December 1921. The Irish delegates set up headquarters at Hans Place in Knightsbridge and it was here in private discussions that the decision was taken at 11.15am on 5 December to recommend the Treaty to Dáil Éireann. The Second Dáil Éireann narrowly ratified the Treaty for the Irish side.

In accordance with the Treaty, on 6 December 1922 the entire island of Ireland became a self-governing British dominion called the Irish Free State (Irish: Saorstát Éireann). However, Northern Ireland exercised its right under the Treaty to opt out of the new dominion and rejoined the United Kingdom on 8 December 1922. It did so by making an Address to the King requesting "that the powers of the Parliament and Government of the Irish Free State shall no longer extend to Northern Ireland.”^[45]

The Treaty was not entirely satisfactory to either side. The Irish Free State was a constitutional monarchy over which the British monarch reigned. The Irish Free State had a Governor-General, a bicameral parliament, a cabinet called the "Executive Council" and a prime minister called the President of the Executive Council.

Irish Civil War

File:Portrait of Micheál Ó Coileáin.jpg

Michael Collins.

The Irish Civil War was the direct consequence of the creation of the Irish Free State. Anti-Treaty forces, led by Éamon de Valera, objected to the fact that acceptance of the Treaty abolished the Irish Republic of 1919 to which they had sworn loyalty, arguing in the face of public support for the settlement that the "people have no right to do wrong". They objected most to the fact that the state would remain part of the British Commonwealth and that Teachtaí Dála (members of the legislature) would have to swear an oath of fidelity to King George V and his successors. Pro-Treaty forces, led by Michael Collins, argued that the Treaty gave "not the ultimate freedom that all nations aspire to and develop, but the freedom to achieve it".

At the start of the war, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) split into two opposing camps: a pro-treaty IRA and an anti-treaty IRA. The pro-Treaty IRA disbanded and joined the new Irish Army. However, through the lack of an effective command structure in the anti-Treaty IRA, and their defensive tactics throughout the war, Collins and his pro-treaty forces were able to build up an army with many tens of thousands of WWI veterans from the 1922 disbanded Irish regiments of the British Army, capable of overwhelming the anti-Treatyists. British supplies of artillery, aircraft, machine-guns and ammunition boosted pro-treaty forces, and the threat of a return of Crown forces to the Free State removed any doubts about the necessity of enforcing the treaty. The lack of public support for the anti-treaty forces (often called the Irregulars) and the determination of the government to overcome the Irregulars contributed significantly to their defeat.

1937 Constitution

On 29 December 1937, a new constitution, the Constitution of Ireland (Bunreacht na hÉireann), came into force. It replaced the Constitution of the Irish Free State and created a new state called "Ireland", or, in the Irish language, "Éire". The former Irish Free State government had taken steps to formally abolish the Office of Governor-General some months before the new Constitution came into force.^[46] Although the Constitution of Ireland established the office of President of Ireland, between 1937 and 1949 Ireland was not technically a republic. This was because the principal key role possessed by a head of state, that of symbolically representing Ireland internationally remained vested under statutory law, in the British King as an organ of the Irish government. The King's title in the Irish Free State was exactly the same as it was elsewhere in the British Empire, being:

From 1922–1927 - By the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India; and

1927–1937 - By the Grace of God, of Great Britain, Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India.

Ireland remained neutral during World War II, a period it described as The Emergency. The position of King ceased with the passage of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948, which came into force on 18 April 1949 when the office of President of Ireland replaced that of the King. The Act declared that the state could be described as a republic. Later, the Crown of Ireland Act was formally repealed in Ireland by the Statute Law Revision (Pre-Union Irish Statutes) Act, 1962.

Ireland was technically a member of the British Commonwealth after independence until the declaration of a republic on 18 April 1949. Under the Commonwealth rules at the time, a declaration of a republic automatically terminated membership of the Commonwealth. Ireland therefore immediately ceased to be a member and did not subsequently reapply for membership when the Commonwealth later changed its rules to allow republics to join the Commonwealth. Ireland joined the United Nations in 1955.

Economic opening

Irish population during the twentieth century

File:O'Connell St, Limerick City, 1960's.jpg

Limerick city in the 1960's

From the 1920s Ireland had high trade barriers such as high tariffs and a policy of import substitution. A high number of residents emigrated. In the 1950s, 400,000 (a seventh of the population) emigrated.^[47] It became increasingly clear that economic nationalism was unsustainable. While other European countries enjoyed fast growth, Ireland suffered economic stagnation, emigration, and other ills.^[47]

The policy changes were drawn together in Economic Development, an official paper published in 1958 that advocated free trade, foreign investment, productive (rather than mainly social) investment, and growth rather than fiscal restraint as the prime objective of economic management.^[47] Ireland joined the European Community (now the European Union) in 1973.

During the 1970s, the population increased for the first time since independence, by 15 percent for the decade. National income increased at an annual rate of about 4 percent. Employment increased by around 1 percent per year, but the state sector amounted to a large part of that. Public sector employment was a third of the total workforce by 1980. Budget deficits and public debt increased, leading to the crisis in the 1980s.^[47]

In the Northern Ireland question, Irish governments started to seek a peaceful reunification of Ireland and have usually cooperated with the British government in the violent conflict involving many paramilitaries and the British Army in Northern Ireland known as "The Troubles". A peace settlement for Northern Ireland, the Belfast Agreement, was approved in 1998 in referendums north and south of the border. As part of the peace settlement, Ireland dropped its territorial claim to Northern Ireland. The peace settlement is currently being implemented.

Recent history

By the 1980s, underlying economic problems became pronounced. High unemployment, emigration, growing public debt returned. Middle income workers were taxed 60% of their marginal income.^[48] Unemployment was 20%. Annual emigration to overseas reached over 1% of population. Public deficits reached 15% of GDP. Fianna Fáil was elected in 1987 and surprised everyone by announcing a swing toward small government.

Public spending was reduced quickly and taxes cut. Ireland promoted competition in all areas. For instance, Ryanair utilized Ireland's deregulated aviation market and helped European regulators to see benefits of competition in transport markets. The more competitive economy attracted foreign investment quickly. Intel invested in 1989 and was followed by hordes of technology companies such as Microsoft and Google, who have found Ireland an excellent investment location. All government parties have had a consensus about the economic development.^[47]

In less than a decade, the GDP per capita in the OECD prosperity ranking rose from 21st in 1993 to 4th in 2002.^[49] Between 1985 and 2002, private sector jobs increased 59%.^[9]

Today Ireland is the 32th Economic Power in the world.

Politics

Ireland is a republic, with a parliamentary system of government. The President of Ireland, who serves as head of state, is elected for a seven-year term and can be re-elected only once. The president is largely a figurehead but can still carry out certain constitutional powers and functions, aided by the Council of State, an advisory body. The [Taoiseach] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) (prime minister), is appointed by the president on the nomination of parliament. Most Taoisigh have been the leader of the political party which wins the most seats in the national elections. It has become normal for coalitions to form a government, and there has not been a single-party government since 1989.

The bicameral parliament, the [Oireachtas] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), consists of the President of Ireland, a Senate, Seanad Éireann, being the upper House, and a House of Representatives, Dáil Éireann, being the lower House.^[50] The Seanad is composed of sixty members; eleven nominated by the Taoiseach, six elected by two universities, and 43 elected by public representatives from panels of candidates established on a vocational basis. The Dáil has 166 members, [Teachtaí Dála] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help), elected to represent multi-seat constituencies under the system of proportional representation by means of the Single Transferable Vote. Under the constitution, parliamentary elections must be held at least every seven years, though a lower limit may be set by statute law. The current statutory maximum term is five years.

The Government is constitutionally limited to fifteen members. No more than two members of the Government can be selected from the Seanad, and the Taoiseach, [Tánaiste] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) (deputy prime minister) and Minister for Finance must be members of the Dáil. The current government consists of a coalition of three parties; Fianna Fáil under Taoiseach Brian Cowen, the Green Party under leader John Gormley and the Progressive Democrats under Senator Ciarán Cannon. The last general election to the Dáil took place on 24 May 2007, after it was called by the Taoiseach on 29 April.

The main opposition in the current Dáil consists of Fine Gael under Enda Kenny, the Labour Party under Eamon Gilmore and Sinn Féin. A number of independent deputies also sit in Dáil Éireann though less in number than before the 2007 election.

Ireland joined the European Union in 1973 but has chosen to remain outside the Schengen Area. Citizens of the UK can freely enter Ireland without a passport thanks to the Common Travel Area, but some form of identification is required at airports and seaports. Ireland has voted against a number of European treaties. On 12 June 2008, Ireland voted in a referendum which rejected the Lisbon treaty. This has caused much controversy within the EU and may affect the future of the Union.^[51]

Counties

The state of Ireland consists of twenty-six traditional counties which are still used in cultural and sporting contexts, and for postal purposes. These are, however, no longer always coterminous with administrative divisions. Several traditional counties have been restructured into new administrative divisions. County Dublin was divided into three separate administrative counties in the 1990s and County Tipperary was divided into two in the 1890s. This gives a present-day total of twenty-nine administrative counties and five cities. The five cities — Dublin, Cork, Limerick, Galway, and Waterford — are administered separately from the remainder of their respective counties. Five boroughs — Clonmel, Drogheda, Kilkenny, Sligo and Wexford — have a level of autonomy within the county. While Kilkenny is a borough, it is has retained the legal right to be referred to as a city.^[52]

Dáil constituencies are required by statute to follow county boundaries, as far as possible. Hence counties with greater populations have multiple constituencies (e.g. Limerick East/West) and some constituencies consist of more than one county (e.g. Sligo-North Leitrim), but by and large, the actual county boundaries are not crossed.

The counties are grouped together into regions for statistical purposes.

Republic of Ireland

Dublin
— Dublin City
— Dún Laoghaire-Rathdown
— Fingal
— South Dublin
Wicklow
Wexford
— Wexford Town (Borough)
Carlow
Kildare
Meath
Louth
— Drogheda Town (Borough)
Monaghan
Cavan
Longford
Westmeath
Offaly
Laois
Kilkenny
— Kilkenny City (Borough)

Waterford
— Waterford City
Cork
— Cork City
Kerry
Limerick
— Limerick City
Tipperary
— North Tipperary
— South Tipperary
— Clonmel Town (Borough)
Clare
Galway
— Galway City
Mayo
Roscommon
Sligo
— Sligo Town (Borough)
Leitrim
Donegal

Geography, climate, and environment

The island of Ireland extends over 84,421 Square kilometres (32,556 square miles), of which 83% (approx. five-sixths) belong to the Irish state (70,280 km²; 27,103 sq mi), while the remainder constitute Northern Ireland. It is bounded to the north and west by the Atlantic Ocean, to the northeast by the North Channel. To the east is found the Irish Sea which reconnects to the ocean via the southwest with St George's Channel and the Celtic Sea. The west coast of Ireland mostly consists of cliffs, hills and low mountains (the highest point being Carrauntoohil at 1,038 m or 3,406 ft). The coastline has been remarked to look like a teddy bear facing west. The interior of the country is relatively flat land, traversed by rivers such as the River Shannon and several large lakes or loughs. The centre of the country is part of the River Shannon watershed, containing large areas of bogland, used for peat extraction and production. Ireland also has off-shore deposits of oil and gas.^[53]

The local temperate climate is modified by the North Atlantic Current and is relatively mild. Summer temperatures exceed 30 °C (86 °F) usually once every decade, though commonly reach 29 °C (84 °F) most summers, and freezes occur only occasionally in winter, with temperatures below -6 °C (21 °F) being uncommon. Precipitation is very common, with some parts of the country getting up to 275 days with rain annually.

Ireland consists of a mostly flat low-lying area in the midlands, ringed by mountain ranges such as (beginning in County Kerry and working counter-clockwise) the Macgillycuddy's Reeks, Comeragh Mountains, Blackstairs Mountains, Wicklow Mountains, the Mournes, Glens of Antrim, Sperrin Mountains, Bluestack Mountains, Derryveagh Mountains, Ox Mountains, Nephinbeg Mountains and the Twelve Bens/Maumturks group. Some mountain ranges are further inland in the south of Ireland, such as the Galtee Mountains, the highest inland range,^[54] Silvermines and Slieve Bloom Mountains. The highest peak is Carrauntoohil, 1,041 m (3,414 ft) high,^[55] is in the Macgillycuddy's Reeks, a range of glacier-carved sandstone mountains in County Kerry, in the southwest of the island. The mountains are not high – only three peaks are over 1,000 m (3,281 ft)^[56] and another 457 exceed 500 m (1,640 ft).^[57]

The main river in Ireland is the River Shannon, 386 km (240 miles), the longest river in either Ireland or Great Britain, which separates the boggy midlands of Ireland from the West of Ireland. The river develops into three lakes along its course, Lough Allen, Lough Ree, and Lough Derg. Of these, Lough Derg is the largest.^[58] The River Shannon enters the Atlantic Ocean after Limerick city at the Shannon Estuary. Other major rivers include the River Liffey, River Lee, River Blackwater, River Nore, River Suir, River Barrow, River Erne, and River Boyne. (See the list of rivers in Ireland.)

Lough Neagh, in Ulster,^[58] is the largest lake in Ireland and the UK. Legend has it that a giant, Fionn mac Cumhail, was fighting with another in Scotland, and enraged, scooped out a lump of earth, which he threw. It fell into the Irish Sea, creating the Isle of Man, while the hole filled up with water to become Lough Neagh. Other large lakes include Lough Erne and Lough Corrib.^[58]

Chief city conurbations are the capital Dublin (1,045,769) on the east coast, Cork (190,384) in the south, Limerick (90,757) in the mid-west, Galway (72,729) on the west coast, and Waterford (49,213) on the south east coast (see Cities in Ireland).

Impact of agriculture

The long history of agricultural production coupled with modern intensive agricultural methods (such as pesticide and fertiliser use) has placed pressure on biodiversity in Ireland. Agriculture is the main factor determining current land use patterns in Ireland, leaving limited land to preserve natural habitats (also forestry and urban development to a lesser extent),^[59] in particular for larger wild mammals with greater territorial requirements. With no top predator in Ireland, populations of animals that cannot be controlled by smaller predators (such as the fox) are controlled by annual culling, i.e. semi-wild populations of deer. A land of green fields for crop cultivation and cattle rearing limits the space available for the establishment of native wild species. Hedgerows, however, traditionally used for maintaining and demarcating land boundaries, act as a refuge for native wild flora. Their ecosystems stretch across the countryside and act as a network of connections to preserve remnants of the ecosystem that once covered the island.

Pollution from agricultural activities is one of the principal sources of environmental damage. Runoff of contaminants into streams, rivers and lakes impacts the natural fresh-water ecosystems.^[60] Subsidies under the Common Agricultural Policy which supported these agricultural practices and contributed to land-use distortions are undergoing reforms.^[61] The CAP still subsidises some potentially destructive agricultural practices, however, the recent reforms have gradually decoupled subsidies from production levels and introduced environmental and other requirements.^[61]

Forest covers about 10% of the country, with most designated for commercial production.^[59] Forested areas typically consist of monoculture plantations of non-native species which may result in habitats that are not suitable for supporting a broad range of native species of invertebrates. Remnants of native forest can be found scattered around the country, in particular in the Killarney National Park. Natural areas require fencing to prevent over-grazing by deer and sheep that roam over uncultivated areas. This is one of the main factors preventing the natural regeneration of forests across many regions of the country.^[62]

Education

The education systems are largely under the direction of the government via the Minister for Education and Science. Recognised primary and secondary schools must adhere to the curriculum established by authorities that have power to set them.

The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Ireland's education as the 20th best among participating countries in science, being statistically significantly higher than the OECD average.^[63]

Primary, Secondary and Tertiary (University/College) level education are all free in Ireland for all EU citizens.

Economy

Trawlers sit in Killybegs harbour, in County Donegal, one of Ireland's biggest fishing ports. Over fishing has depleted Ireland's cod stocks in particular.

The economy of Ireland has transformed in recent years from an agricultural focus to a modern knowledge economy, focusing on services and high-tech industries and dependent on trade, industry and investment. Economic growth in Ireland averaged a (relatively high) 10% from 1995–2000, and 7% from 2001–2004. Industry, which accounts for 46% of GDP, about 80% of exports, and 29% of the labour force, now takes the place of agriculture as the country's leading sector.

Exports play a fundamental role in Ireland's growth and over the last 40 years a string of significant base metal discoveries have been made, including the giant ore deposit at Tara Mine. Zinc-lead ores are also currently exploited from two other underground operations in Lisheen and Galmoy. Ireland now ranks as the seventh largest producer of zinc concentrates in the world, and the twelfth largest producer of lead concentrates. The combined output from these mines, three of Europe’s most modern and developed mines, make Ireland the largest zinc producer in Europe and the second largest producer of lead.^[64]

Subsidiaries of US multinationals have located in Ireland due to low taxation. Ireland is the world's most profitable country for US corporations, according to analysis by US tax journal Tax Notes^[65]

The country is one of the largest exporters of software-related goods and services in the world.^[66] In fact, a lot of foreign software, and sometimes music, is filtered through the country to avail of Ireland's non-taxing of royalties from copyrighted goods.^{[citation needed]}

Bord Gáis was established under the Gas Act, and charged with the responsibility for the supply, transmission and distribution of natural gas which was first brought ashore in 1976 from the Kinsale Head Gas Field. New sources of supply are expected to come on stream after 2009/10, including the Corrib gas field and potentially the Shannon Liquefied Natrual Gas (LNG) terminal.^[67] Added to gas supplies, energy exports have the potential to transform Ireland's economy.^[68]

As well as exports the economy also benefits from the accompanying rise in consumer spending, construction, and business investment. A key part of economic policy, since 1987, has been Social Partnership which is a neo-corporatist set of voluntary 'pay pacts' between the Government, employers and trades unions. These usually set agreed pay rises for three-year periods.

The 1995 to 2000 period of high economic growth led many to call the country the Celtic Tiger.^[69] The economy felt the impact of the global economic slowdown in 2001, particularly in the high-tech export sector — the growth rate in that area was cut by nearly half. GDP growth continued to be relatively robust, with a rate of about 6% in 2001 and 2002. Growth for 2004 was over 4%, and for 2005 was 4.7%.

With high growth came high levels of inflation, particularly in the capital city. Prices in Dublin, where nearly 30% of Ireland's population lives, are considerably higher than elsewhere in the country,^[70] especially in the property market (but property prices are falling rapidly following the recent downturn in the World economy and its knock-on effects on Ireland). At the end of July 2008, the annual rate of inflation was running at 4.4% (as measured by the CPI) or 3.6% (as measured by the HICP)^[71]^[72] and inflation actually dropped slightly from the previous month.

Measuring Ireland's level of income per capita is a complicated issue. Ireland possesses the second highest GDP (PPP) per capita in the world (US$43,600 as of 2006), behind Luxembourg, and the fifth highest Human Development Index, which is calculated partially on the basis of GDP per capita. Another measure, Gross National Income per head, takes account of this and therefore many economists feel it is a superior measure of income in the country. In 2005, the World Bank measured Ireland's GNI per head at $41,140 - the seventh highest in the world, sixth highest in Western Europe, and the third highest of any EU member state. Also, a study by The Economist found Ireland to have the best quality of life in the world.^[73] This study employed GDP per capita as a measure of income rather than GNI per capita.

The positive reports and economic statistics mask several underlying imbalances. The construction sector, which is inherently cyclical in nature, now accounts for a significant component of Ireland's GDP. A recent downturn in residential property market sentiment has highlighted the over-exposure of the Irish economy to construction, which now presents a threat to economic growth.^[74]^[75]^[76]

Several successive years of economic growth have led to an increase in inequality^[10] in Irish society (see Economy of Ireland - Recent developments) and a decrease in poverty.^[77] Ireland's Gini coefficient measure of income inequality is 30.4, slightly below the OECD average of 30.7.^[10] Figures show that 6.8% of Ireland's population suffer "consistent poverty".^[78]

However, after a construction boom in the last decade, economic growth is now slowing. There has been a significant fall in house prices and the cost of living is beginning to stabilise, after rising every year during the economic boom. It is now said the Irish economy is rebalancing itself. During the boom, Ireland had developed a reputation as one of the most expensive countries in Europe. The ESRI predicts that the Irish economy will not grow this year at all and may retract by -0.5% in 2008, down hugely from 4.7% growth in 2007, but expects economic growth to near 2% again in 2009 and near 4% in 2010.^[79] The huge reduction in construction has caused Ireland's massive economic downturn, if construction was not included in the economic outlook Ireland would still grow by about 2.5% however this is the first time in over 2 decades that the ESRI has applied the term recession to the Irish economy. Ireland now has the second-highest level of household debt in the world, at 190% of household income.^[80]

Ireland is currently (2008) ranked as the world's third most economically free economy in an index created by the Wall Street Journal and Heritage Foundation, the Index of Economic Freedom.

The Financial Crisis of 2008 is currently affecting the Irish economy severely, compounding domestic economic problems related the collapse of the Irish property bubble. Ireland was the first country in the EU to officially enter a recession as declared by the Central Statistics Office. ^[81] Ireland was stripped of it`s AAA credit ranking and downgraded to AA+ by Standard & Poor's ratings agency, due to Ireland`s bleak financial outlook and heavy government debt burden.^[82]

Currency

Before the introduction of the euro cash in January 2002 the currency in use in the country was the Irish pound or "punt". Ireland along with eleven other EU states launched the euro currency system in January 1999. Euro banknotes are issued in €5, €10, €20, €50, €100, €200 and €500 denominations and share the common design used across Europe, however like other countries in the Eurozone, Ireland has its own unique design on one face of euro coins.^[83] The government of Ireland decided on a single national design for all Irish coin denominations, which show the Celtic harp, a traditional symbol of Ireland, decorated with the year of issue and the word "Éire".

Military

File:ARW GMG.jpg

Irish Army.

Ireland's military are organised as the Irish Defence Forces ([Óglaigh na hÉireann] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help)). The Irish Army is relatively small when compared with other armies in the region, but is well equipped, with 8,500 full-time military personnel (13,000 in the reserve army).^[84] This is principally due to Ireland's policy of neutrality,^[85] and its "triple-lock" rules governing participation in conflicts whereby approval must be given by the UN, the Government and the Dáil before any Irish troops are deployed into a conflict zone.

File:Irish Army Mowag Piranha.JPG

Irish Army Mowag Piranha AFV at 2006 Easter Military Parade in Dublin

^[86] Deployments of Irish soldiers cover UN peace-keeping duties, protection of Ireland's territorial waters (in the case of the Irish Naval Service) and "Aid to Civil Power" operations in the state. See Irish neutrality. There is also an Irish Air Corps, Irish Naval Service and Reserve Defence Forces (Irish Army Reserve and Naval Service Reserve) under the Defence Forces. The Irish Army Rangers is a special forces branch which operates under the aegis of the army.

Over 40,000 Irish servicemen have served in UN peacekeeping missions around the world.

Ireland's air facilities were used by the U.S. military for the delivery of military personnel involved in the 2003 invasion of Iraq through Shannon Airport; previously the airport had been used for the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, as well as the First Gulf War.^[87] This is part of a longer history of use of Shannon for controversial military transport, under Irish military policy which, while ostensibly neutral, was biased towards NATO during the Cold War.^[88] During the Cuban Missile Crisis, Seán Lemass authorised the search of Cuban and Czech aircraft passing through Shannon and passed the information to the CIA.^[89]

During the Second World War, although officially neutral, Ireland supplied similar, though more extensive, support for the Allied Forces (see Irish neutrality during World War II ). Since 1999, Ireland has been a member of NATO's Partnership for Peace program.^[90]^[91]

Demographics

File:Grafton street entr.JPG

Dublin, the capital city of Ireland.

Genetic research suggests that the first settlers of Ireland, and parts of North-Western Europe, came through migrations from Iberia following the end of the most recent ice age.^[92] After the Mesolithic, the Neolithic and Bronze Age migrants introduced Celtic culture and languages to Ireland. These later migrants from the Neolithic to Bronze Age still represent a majority of the genetic heritage of Irish people. ^[93]^[94] Culture spread throughout the island, and the Gaelic tradition became the dominant form in Ireland. Today, Irish people are mainly of Gaelic ancestry, and although some of the population is also of Norse, Anglo-Norman, English, Scottish, French and Welsh ancestry, these groups have been assimilated and do not form distinct minority groups. Gaelic culture and language forms an important part of national identity. In the UK, Irish Travellers are a recognised ethnic minority group, politically (but not ethnically) linked with mainland European Roma and Gypsy groups,^[95] although in Ireland, they are not, instead they are classified as a "social group".^[96]

Ireland, as of 2007, contains the fastest growing population in Europe. The growth rate in 2006 was 2.5%, the third year in a row it has been above 2%. This rapid growth can be said to be due to falling death rates, rising birth rates and high immigration rates.^[97]

Languages

The official languages are Irish and English. Teaching of the Irish and English languages is compulsory in the primary and secondary level schools that receive money and recognition from the state. Some students may be exempt from the requirement to receive instruction in either language. English is the predominant language spoken throughout the country. People living in predominantly Irish-speaking communities, Gaeltacht regions, are limited to the low tens of thousands in isolated pockets largely on the western seaboard. Road signs are usually bilingual, except in Gaeltacht regions, where they are in Irish only.^[98] The legal status of place names has recently been the subject of controversy, with an order made in 2005 under the Official Languages Act changing the official name of certain locations from English back to Irish (e.g. Dingle had its name changed to An Daingean despite local opposition and a local plebiscite requesting that the name be changed to a bilingual version: Dingle Daingean Uí Chúis. Most public notices are only in English, as are most of the print media. Most Government publications and forms are available in both English and Irish, and citizens have the right to deal with the state in Irish if they so wish. National media in Irish exist on TV (TG4), radio (e.g. Raidió na Gaeltachta), and in print (e.g. Lá Nua and Foinse).

According to the 2006 census, 1,656,790 people (or 39%) in the Republic regard themselves as competent in Irish; though no figures are available for English-speakers, it is thought to be almost 100%.

The Polish language is one of the most widely spoken languages in Ireland after English and Irish: there are over 63,000 Poles resident in Ireland according to the 2006 census. Other languages spoken in Ireland include Shelta, spoken by the Irish Traveller population and a dialect of Scots is spoken by some descendents of Scottish settlers in Ulster.

Most students at second level choose one or two foreign languages to learn. Languages available for the Junior Certificate and the Leaving Certificate include French, German, Italian and Spanish; Leaving Certificate students can also study Arabic, Japanese and Russian. Some schools also offer Ancient Greek, Hebrew Studies and Latin at second level.

Recent population growth

Non-national groups with populations in Ireland of 10,000 or more in 2006. Non-European Union nationals are shown exploded.

Ireland's population has increased significantly in recent years. Much of this population growth can be attributed to the arrival of immigrants and the return of Irish people (often with their foreign-born children) who emigrated in large numbers in earlier years during periods of high unemployment. In addition the birth rate in Ireland is currently over double the death rate, which is highly unusual among Western European countries.^[99] Approximately 10% of Ireland's population is now made up of foreign citizens. The CSO has published preliminary findings based on the 2006 Census of Population. These indicate:

The total population of Ireland on Census Day, 23 April 2006, was 4,234,925, an increase of 317,722, or 8.1% since 2002
Allowing for the incidence of births (245,000) and deaths (114,000), the derived net immigration of people to Ireland between 2002 and 2006 was 186,000.
The total number of foreign citizens resident in Ireland is 419,733, or around 10% (plus 1,318 non-nationals or people with 'no nationality', and 44,279 people whose nationality is not stated).
The single largest group of immigrants comes from the United Kingdom (112,548) followed by Poland (63,267), Lithuania (24,628), Nigeria (16,300), Latvia (13,319), the United States (12,475), China (11,161), and Germany (10,289).
94.8% of the population was recorded as having a 'White' ethnic or cultural background. 1.1% of the population had a 'Black or Black Irish' background, 1.3% had an 'Asian or Asian Irish' background and 1.7% of the population's ethnic or cultural background was 'not stated'.
The average annual rate of increase, 2%, is the highest on record – compared to 1.3% between 1996 and 2002 and 1.5% between 1971 and 1979.
The 2006 population was last exceeded in the 1861 Census when the population then was 4.4 million The lowest population of Ireland was recorded in the 1961 Census – 2.8 million.
All provinces of Ireland recorded population growth. The population of Leinster grew by 8.9%; Munster by 6.5%; and the long-term population decline of the Connacht-Ulster^[100] Region has stopped.
The ratio of males to females has declined in each of the four provinces between 1979 and 2006. Leinster is the only province where the number of females exceeds the number of males. Males predominate in rural counties such as Cavan, Leitrim, and Roscommon while there are more females in cities and urban areas.

A more detailed breakdown of these figures is available online. Template:PDFlink

Detailed statistics into the population of Ireland since 1841 are available at Irish Population Analysis.

Religion

A pie chart showing the proportion of followers of each religion (and none) in Ireland in 2006.

Ireland's constitution states that the state may not endow any particular religion, and also guarantees freedom of religion. Approximately 86.8% of the population are from a Roman Catholic,^[101] background and the country has one of the highest rates of regular and weekly church attendance in the Western World.^[102] However, there has been a major decline in this attendance among Roman Catholics in the course of the past 30 years. Between 1996 and 2001, regular Mass attendance, declined further from 60% to 48%^[103] (it had been above 90% before 1973), and all but two of its sacerdotal seminaries have closed (St Patrick's College, Maynooth and St Malachy's College, Belfast). A number of theological colleges continue to educate both ordained and lay people. The second largest Christian denomination, the Church of Ireland (Anglican), was declining in number for most of the twentieth century, but has more recently experienced an increase in membership, according to the 2002 census, as have other small Christian denominations, as well as Hinduism. Other large Protestant denominations are the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, followed by the Methodist Church in Ireland. Between 2002 and 2006 there was a 69% increase in the number of Muslims living in Ireland, which makes Islam the fastest growing and the third largest religion in the country. The very small Jewish community in Ireland also recorded a marginal increase (see History of the Jews in Ireland) in the same period. The patron saints of Ireland (the island) are Saint Patrick, Saint Bridget and Saint Columba. According to the 2006 census, the number of people who described themselves as having "no religion" was 186,318 (4.4%), although this fails to differentiate between non-religious people and pagans/spiritual people who simply reject formal dogma. An additional 1,515 people described themselves as agnostic and 929 as atheist instead of ticking the "no religion" box. This brings the total nonreligious within the state to 4.5% of the population. A further 70,322 (1.7%) did not state a religion.^[104]

Religion and politics

The original 1937 Constitution of Ireland gave the Catholic Church a "special position" as the church of the majority, but also recognised other Christian denominations and Judaism. As with other predominantly Catholic European states (e.g., Italy), the Irish state underwent a period of legal secularisation in the late twentieth century. In 1972, the article of the Constitution naming specific religious groups, including the Catholic Church, was deleted by the fifth amendment of the constitution in a referendum.

Article 44 remains in the Constitution. It begins:

The State acknowledges that the homage of public worship is due to Almighty God. It shall hold His Name in reverence, and shall respect and honour religion.

The article also establishes freedom of religion (for belief, practice, and organisation without undue interference from the state), prohibits endowment of any particular religion, prohibits the state from religious discrimination, and requires the state to treat religious and non-religious schools in a non-prejudicial manner.

Religion and education

Despite a large number of schools in Ireland being run by religious organisations, a general trend of secularism is occurring within the Irish population, particularly in the younger generations.^[105] Many efforts have been made by secular groups, to eliminate the rigorous study in the second and sixth classes, to prepare for the sacraments of Holy Communion and confirmation in Catholic schools - parents can ask for their children to be excluded from religious study if they wish. However, religious studies as a subject was introduced into the state administered Junior Certificate in 2001, although it is not compulsory and deals with aspects of different religions, not focusing on one particular religion.

Schools run by religious organisations, but receive public money and recognition, are not allowed to discriminate against pupils based upon religion (or lack of). A sanctioned system of preference does exist, where students of a particular religion may be accepted before those who do not share the ethos of the school, in a case where a school's quota has already been reached.

Social issues

Reflected in the policies of successive governments, Ireland is now predominantly progressive in relation to social issues. Though a conservative basis still remains in relation to some issues, there has been a "liberalisation" in some areas in recent decades. The most notably affected areas include changes relating to the legal status of divorce, contraception, gay rights and abortion in Ireland.

For example, while Catholic and Protestant attitudes in 1937 disapproved of divorce - and it was prohibited by the original Constitution - this was repealed in 1995 under the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution. With abortion, the 1983 Eight Amendment to the Constitution recognised "the right to life of the unborn", subject to qualifications concerning the "equal right to life" of the mother. The case of Attorney General v. X subsequently prompted passage of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments, guaranteeing the right to travel abroad to have an abortion performed, and the right of citizens to learn about "services" that are illegal in Ireland but legal outside the country.

Ireland also historically favoured conservative legislation regarding sexuality. For example, contraception was illegal in Ireland until 1979.^[106] Similarly, the legislation which outlawed homosexual acts was not repealed until 1993 - although even before this it was generally only enforced when dealing with under-age sex.^[107]^[108] Ireland has since taken steps to change its policies relating to these issues; for instance, discrimination based on sexual orientation is illegal, and same-sex civil partnerships legislation was published in June 2008 (though not yet enshrined in law). A poll carried out in 2008 showed that 84% of Irish people supported civil marriage or civil partnerships for gay and lesbian couples, with 58% supporting full marriage rights in registry offices.^[109] A later Irish Times poll put support for same-sex marriage at 63%, up a further 5%.^[110]

On many issues, Ireland has become very progressive. For instance, in 2002, Ireland became the first country to have an environmental levy for all plastic shopping bags; while in 2004 the country became the first in the world to ban smoking in all workplaces. The country also plans to be the first in Europe to ban incandescent lightbulbs.^[111] The death penalty is constitutionally banned in Ireland, and the country was one of the main nations involved in the 2008 Convention on Cluster Munitions, which was formally endorsed in Dublin.

Transport

The country has three main international airports (Dublin, Shannon, and Cork) that serve a wide variety of European and intercontinental routes with scheduled and chartered flights. The national airline is Aer Lingus, although low cost airline Ryanair is the largest airline. The route between London and Dublin is the busiest international air route in Europe, with 4.5 million people flying between the two cities in 2006.^[112]^[113]

Railway services are provided by Iarnród Éireann. Dublin is the centre of the network, with two main stations (Heuston and Connolly) linking to the main towns and cities. The Enterprise service, run jointly with Northern Ireland Railways, connects Dublin with Belfast. Dublin has a steadily improving public transport network of varying quality including the DART, Luas, Bus service and an expanding rail network although the termination of most services at 18:00 remains an area for improvement. The motorways and national routes (national primary roads and national secondary roads) are managed by the National Roads Authority. The rest of the roads (regional roads and local roads) are managed by the local authorities in each of their areas.

Regular ferry services operate between Ireland and Great Britain, the Isle of Man and France.

Intercity services provided by the national Iarnród Éireann (IÉ) linking Dublin to Cork, Waterford, Kilkenny, Galway, Tralee, Sligo, Limerick and Belfast. In Northern Ireland, the Northern Ireland Railways (NIR), which operates the network, providing liaison between Belfast and Derry (Londonderry) and suburban services. The cross-border service "Enterprise" is provided jointly by the two companies, NIR and IÉ.

Since 1984, an electric train, called Dublin Area Rapid Transit (DART), runs between Bray and Howth. There is also operated by IÉ.

A network of trams, the LUAS is under construction in Dublin, a subway system is also programmed. Luas is an Irish word meaning "fast" and not an acronym. The implementation of the LUAS network to the European standard gauge of 1435 m, under the Railway Procurement Agency (RPA), has caused much upheaval in Dublin and in response many believe that a subway would have been a best solution, one possibility is still being discussed to convert the LUAS subway when it will be built. Trams will be "Citadis" built by Alstom (This is the model that circulates in Montpellier). The concession for operating the network was awarded to Connex (Veolia Group).

Culture

Literature

Oscar Wilde remains one of Ireland's best-known playwrights

James Joyce published his most famous work Ulysses, an interpretation of the Odyssey set in Dublin, in 1922. Edith Somerville continued writing after the death of her partner Martin Ross in 1915. Dublin's Annie M. P. Smithson was one of several authors catering for fans of romantic fiction in the 1920s and 1930s. After the war popular novels were published by, among others, Brian O'Nolan, who published as Flann O'Brien, Elizabeth Bowen, Kate O'Brien. In the last few decades of the 20th century Edna O'Brien, John McGahern, Maeve Binchy, Joseph O'Connor, Roddy Doyle, Colm Tóibín and John Banville came to the fore as novelists.

Patricia Lynch (1898–1972) was a prolific children's author, while recently Eoin Colfer has been particularly successful in this genre.

In the genre of the short story, a form favoured by Irish writers, Seán Ó Faoláin, Frank O'Connor and William Trevor are prominent.

Poets include W.B. Yeats, Patrick Kavanagh, Seamus Heaney (Nobel Literature laureate), Thomas McCarthy and Dermot Bolger.

Prominent writers in the Irish language are Pádraic Ó Conaire, Máirtín Ó Cadhain, Séamus Ó Grianna and Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill.

Theatre

The history of Irish theatre begins with the Gaelic Irish tradition. Much of the literature in that Celtic language was destroyed by conquest, except for a few manuscripts and fragments, such as the Book of Fermoy. The scribe who copied this leather book—Adam Ó Cianáin—copied out a dialogue called The Colloquy Between Fintan and the Hawk of Achill in the 14th century, and the little play is obviously much older. Such texts indicate something like a Gaelic theatrical tradition that was pagan, and not rooted in Passion plays. The Colloquy (conversation) is divided, as in a script, between one character "Fintan" and the hawk, whose dialogue is indicated above his speeches by "an t-én", or "the bird." The oldest Irish play to survive the Viking and English invasions is probably this Gaelic Irish conversation between a man and a hawk on the island of Achill at the edge of the known world. A source link for the play can be found below.

The history of Irish theatre in the familiar sense begins with the rise of the English administration in Dublin at the start of the 17th century. Over the next 400 years this small country was to make a disproportionate contribution to drama in English.

In the early days of its history, theatrical productions in Ireland tended to serve the political purposes of the administration, but as more theatres opened and the popular audience grew, a more diverse range of entertainments were staged. Many Dublin-based theatres developed links with their London equivalents and performers and productions from the British capital frequently found their way to the Irish stage. However, most Irish playwrights from William Congreve to George Bernard Shaw found it necessary to leave their native island to establish themselves.

At the beginning of the 20th century, theatres and theatre companies dedicated to the staging of Irish plays and the development of indigenous writers, directors and performers began to emerge. This allowed many of the most significant Irish dramatists to learn their trade and establish their reputations in Ireland rather than in Great Britain or the United States. Following in the tradition of Shaw, Wilde and Samuel Beckett, playwrights such as Seán O'Casey, Brian Friel, Sebastian Barry, Conor McPherson and Billy Roche have gained popular success.^[114]

Visual arts

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In Ireland an unbroken Celtic heritage existed from before and through the Roman period in Britain, which had never reached the island, and thus the 5th to 7th centuries were mainly a continuation of the late Iron Age La Tène traditions, with only some minor Roman influences. In the 7th and 8th centuries Irish art mixed with Germanic traditions through Irish missionary contacts with the Anglo-Saxons, creating what is called Insular art (or the Hiberno-Saxon style) and such masterpieces as the Book of Kells, the Ardagh Chalice and the Tara Brooch. Later in the period Scandinavian influences were added through the Vikings, then original Celtic work came to an end with the Norman invasion in 1169-1170 and subsequent introduction of Romanesque art.

Prominent artists include Jack Butler Yeats, Louis le Brocquy, Anne Madden, Robert Ballagh, James Coleman, Dorothy Cross and John Gerrard.

Music

In the seventeenth century harp musicians were patronised by the aristocracy in Ireland. This died out in the eighteenth century. Turlough Carolan (1670 - 1738) was the most famous,^[115]^[116] and over 200 of his compositions are known. He wrote in a baroque style that is usually classified as classical music, but is played by many folk musicians today. Edward Bunting collected some of the last-known harp tunes at the Belfast Harp Festival in 1792. Other important collectors include Francis O'Neill^[117] and George Petrie.

Irish dance music at weddings and saint's days would have included reels (4/4), hornpipes and jigs (the common double jig is in 6/8 time).^[118] The polka arrived at the start of the nineteenth century, spread by itinerant dancing masters and mercenary soldiers, returning from Europe.^[119] Set dancing may have arrived in the eighteenth century.^[120] Later imported dance-signatures include the mazurka and the highlands (a sort of Irished version of the Scottish strathspey).^[121] In the nineteenth century folk instruments would have included the flute the fiddle and the uilleann pipes.

File:The O2 Dublin.jpg

The O2.

By the start of the twentieth century the button accordion and the concertina were becoming common.^[122] Irish stepdance was performed at céilís, organised competitions and at some country houses where local and itinerant musicians were welcome. ^[123] Irish dancing was supported by the educational system and patriotic organisations. An older style of singing called sean-nós ("in the old style"), which is a form of traditional Irish singing was still found, mainly for very poetic songs in the Irish language.^[124] From 1820 to 1920 over 4,400,000 Irish emigrated to the USA, creating a Celtic diaspora in Chicago (see Francis O'Neill), Boston, New York and other cities.^[125] Irish musicians who were successful in the USA made recordings which found their way around the world and re-invigorated musical styles back in the homeland. ^[126] An example is Ann Moray, who included traditional Irish music in her concerts, and issued a recording titled Gaelic Songs and Legends as well as a recording of Love Songs of Robert Burns.^[127]

Ireland is known for its traditional music and song, in origin going back hundreds of years but still played throughout the country.

Among the best-known modern performers are groups such as The Chieftains, Clannad and Altan, singers such as Christy Moore, ensembles such as Anúna and Celtic Woman and cross-over artists such as singers Enya and Sinéad O'Connor. Built upon this tradition is the dance company Riverdance.

Ireland has produced internationally influential artists in other musical genres such as rock, pop, jazz and blues including The Pogues, U2, Westlife, Chris de Burgh, Thin Lizzy, The Corrs, The Cranberries, Classified, Blues guitarist Rory Gallagher, jazz guitarist Louis Stewart and Academy Award winner Glen Hansard of The Frames.

There are a number of classical music ensembles around the country^[128] and opera lovers are catered for with the annual Wexford Opera Festival.

Cinema

File:RedEye05.jpg

Cillian Murphy with Rachel McAdams in Red Eye.

The Savoy Cinema was built in 1929 on the site of the old Granville Hotel, by Associated Cinemas Ltd. It is the largest cinema in the island of Ireland. The luxurious auditorium, housing 2,789 seats, opened to the public with the film On With The Show. The cinema was altered in 1954 to incorporate a large CinemaScope screen, and screened Ireland's first widescreen feature, The Robe, at the time owned by Odeon Ireland Ltd. King Arthur was the largest film set ever built in Ireland, and was located in a field in Ballymore-Eustace Co.Kildare..

The flourishing Irish film industry, state-supported by Bord Scannán na hÉireann, helped launch the careers of directors Neil Jordan and Jim Sheridan, and supported Irish films such as John Crowley's Intermission, Neil Jordan's Breakfast on Pluto, and others. A policy of tax breaks and other incentives has also attracted international film to Ireland, including Mel Gibson's Braveheart and Steven Spielberg's Saving Private Ryan.

Irish actors who have made it to Hollywood include Richard Harris, Peter O'Toole, Pierce Brosnan, Gabriel Byrne, Brendan Gleeson, Daniel Day Lewis (by citizenship), Colm Meaney, Colin Farrell, Brenda Fricker, Jonathan Rhys-Meyers, Stuart Townsend and Cillian Murphy.

Architecture

File:O'Connell Street Cupolas.JPG

The O'Connell Street in Dublin.

In the 20th century, Irish architecture followed the international trend towards modern, sleek and often radical building styles, particularly after independence in the first half of the century. New building materials and old were utilised in new ways to maximise style, space, light and energy efficiency. 1928 saw the construction of Ireland's first all concrete Art Deco church in Turner's Cross, Cork.^[129] The building was designed by Chicago architect Barry Byrne and met with a cool reception among those more accustomed to traditional designs.^[130]

In 1953, one of Ireland's most radical buildings, Bus Éireann's main Dublin terminal building, better known as Busáras, was completed. It was built despite huge public opposition and excessive costs of over £1 million.^[131] Michael Scott, its architect is now considered one of the most important architects of the 20th century in Ireland.^[132]

A significant change in Ireland's architecture has taken place over the last few years, with a major shift towards the European continental ethos of architecture and urbanity.^{[citation needed]} There are currently four buildings in planning that would eclipse the country's current tallest building record - currently held by Cork County Hall in Cork. These projects include the Elysian Building in Cork and the U2 Building, Players Mill and The Tall Building in Dublin. One of the most symbolic structures of modern Irish architecture is the Spire of Dublin. Completed in January 2003, the structure was nominated in 2004 for the prestigious Stirling Prize.

Science

There have been notable Irish scientists. The Anglo-Irish scientist Robert Boyle (1627–1691) is considered the father of chemistry for his book The Sceptical Chymist, written in 1661.^[133] Boyle was an atomist, and is best known for Boyle's Law. The hydrographer Sir Francis Beaufort (1774-1857), an Irish naval officer of Huguenot descent, was the creator of the Beaufort scale for indicating wind force. George Boole (1815–1864), the mathematician who invented Boolean algebra, spent the latter part of his life in Cork. The 19th century physicist George Stoney introduced the idea and the name of the electron. He was the uncle of another notable physicist, George FitzGerald.

The Irish bardic system, along with the Gaelic culture and learned classes, were upset by the plantations, and went into decline. Among the last of the true bardic poets were Brian Mac Giolla Phádraig (c. 1580-1652) and Dáibhí Ó Bruadair (1625–1698). The Irish poets of the late 17th and 18th centuries moved toward more modern dialects. Among the most prominent of this period were Séamas Dall Mac Cuarta, Peadar Ó Doirnín, Art Mac Cumhaigh Cathal Buí Mac Giolla Ghunna, and Seán Clárach Mac Domhnaill. Irish Catholics continued to receive an education in secret "hedgeschools", in spite of the Penal laws.^[134] A knowledge of Latin was common among the poor Irish mountaineers in the 17th century, who spoke it on special occasions, while cattle were bought and sold in Greek in the mountain market-places of Kerry.^[135]

Sport

Ireland's national sports are Gaelic football and hurling. Hurling, arguably the world's fastest field team sport in terms of game play is, along with Gaelic Football, administered by the Gaelic Athletic Association; as is Handball. Notable former Gaelic Athletic Association players include the now retired pair of DJ Carey and Peter Canavan. The former Taoiseach Jack Lynch was a noted hurler and All-Ireland winner before entering politics. Well-known current players include Henry Shefflin, Sean Cavanagh and Colm Cooper.

In association football, former players include Roy Keane, Johnny Giles, Liam Brady, Denis Irwin, Packie Bonner, Niall Quinn and Paul McGrath, while players whose careers are ongoing include Steve Finnan, Shay Given, Damien Duff, John O'Shea, Aiden McGeady and Robbie Keane. Ireland's national soccer league is the FAI League of Ireland.

In rugby, Ireland has produced world class players such as Brian O'Driscoll, Ronan O'Gara, Paul O'Connell, David Wallace and Keith Wood and most recent achievements include winning the RBS Six Nations and Grand Slam 2009.

In athletics, Sonia O'Sullivan, Eamonn Coghlan, Catherina McKiernan, Ronnie Delaney, John Treacy, David Gillick, Gillian O'Sullivan and Derval O'Rourke have won medals at international events.

In cricket, Ireland played in the 2007 World Cricket League and qualified for the 2007 Cricket World Cup, reaching the last eight.

Ken Doherty is a former World Champion (1997) snooker player. John L. Sullivan, born 1858 in the United States to Irish immigrant parents, was the first modern world heavyweight champion. Barry McGuigan and Steve Collins were also world champion boxers, while Bernard Dunne was a European super bantamweight champion and is current WBA Super Bantamweight champion. Michael Carruth is also an Olympic gold medallist having won at welterweight at the Barcelona Olympic Games in 1992. Current prospects in the middleweight division are the undefeated John Duddy, and Andy Lee who has one defeat. Both fighters are aiming for world championship fights. At the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing in China, the Irish team won 3 medals, with Kenneth Egan winning silver and Darren Sutherland and Paddy Barnes earning bronzes. Boxing has proven a successful sport for Ireland in the Olympics and also at professional level.

In motorsport, during the 1990s Jordan Grand Prix became the only independent team to win multiple Formula One races. Rallying also has a measure of popularity as a spectator sport, and in 2007 the Rally of Ireland (which was held in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland) became a qualifying round of the FIA World Rally Championship and attracted an estimated attendance of some 200,000 spectators.^[136]

In cycling, Ireland produced Stephen Roche, the first and only Irishman to win the Tour de France in 1987, and the prolific Seán Kelly.

In golf, the current Open and USPGA champion is Irishman Pádraig Harrington. In 2002, Dermott Lennon became the first Irish rider to win a Show Jumping World Championship gold medal.

By attendance figures Gaelic football and hurling are by far the most popular sports in Ireland, 34% of total attendances at sports events being to football and 23% to hurling.^[137] ^[138]^[139] while golf and soccer (including 5-a-side) are the most played at 17% of the population each.^[140]

Cuisine

Irish cuisine takes its influence from the crops grown and animals farmed in its temperate climate. The introduction of the potato in the second half of the sixteenth century heavily influenced cuisine thereafter. Irish beef is exported world-wide and renouned for its high quality. Other examples of Irish meals are Irish stew, and bacon and cabbage (boiled together in water). Boxty, a type of potato pancake, is another traditional dish. A dish mostly particular to Dublin is coddle, which involves boiled pork sausages. Ireland is famous for the Irish breakfast^[141]^[142], a fried (or grilled) meal generally comprising bacon, egg, sausage, black and white pudding, fried tomato and which may also include fried potato farls or fried potato slices.

Colcannon is a good dish made of potato and wild garlic (the earliest form), cabbage or curly kale, (compare bubble and squeak). Champ consists of mashed potato into which chopped scallions (spring onions) are mixed.

While seafood has always been consumed by Irish people, shellfish dishes have increased in popularity in recent times, especially due to the high quality of shellfish available from Ireland's coastline, e.g. Dublin Bay Prawns, Oysters (many oyster festivals are held annually around the fairy coast where oysters are often served with Guinness, the most notable being held in Galway every September ) as well as other crustaceans. A good example of an Irish dish for shellfish is Dublin Lawyer - Lobster cooked in whiskey and cream. Salmon and cod are perhaps the two most common types of fish used.

Traditional Irish breads include soda bread, wheaten bread, soda farls, and blaa, a doughy white bread roll particular to Waterford.

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John Daniszewski, 17 April, 2005, Catholicism Losing Ground in Ireland, LA Times
Irish poll shows parents no longer want to force religion on to children from secularism.org.uk
Phil Lawler, 17 September 2007, Ireland threatened by secularism, Pope tells new envoy, Catholic World News
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^ "Busáras". Buildings of Ireland. Archiseek. Retrieved 2008-11-09.
^ Clerkin, Paul. "Michael Scott (1905–1989)". Architects of Ireland. Archiseek. Retrieved 2008-10-15.
^ Boyle on Atheism by J.J. MacIntosh (University of Toronto Press ISBN 978-0802090188), page 6
^ MacManus, p 461
^ MacManus, p 461-462
^ Jerry Williams, Fans unite as top drivers battle it out, Daily Mail, 14 November 2007
^ "The Social Significance of Sport" (PDF). Retrieved 2006-11-27.
^ "GAA attendance figures" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-02-22.
^ "Culture and.. Sport". Retrieved 2008-02-22.
^ "Social and Economic Value of Sport in Ireland" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-02-05.
^ Today Show Irish Breakfast
^ Irish Breakfast at FoodIreland.com

Some of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.
OECD Information Technology Outlook 2004

External links

Government

Irish State – Official governmental portal
Áras an Uachtaráin – Official presidential site
Taoiseach – Official prime ministerial site
Tithe an Oireachtais – Houses of Parliament, official parliamentary site
Chief of State and Cabinet Members

General information

"Ireland". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency.
Ireland information from the United States Department of State
Portals to the World from the United States Library of Congress
Ireland at UCB Libraries GovPubs
Ireland at Curlie
Wikimedia Atlas of Ireland
Template:Wikitravel

Template:Link FA

[1] CIA World Factbook: Republic of Ireland

[2] CSO 2006 Census - Volume 5 - Ethnic or Cultural Background (including the Irish Traveller Community)

[3] CSO Ireland - April 2008 Population Estimates

[imf2-4] "Republic of Ireland". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 2009-04-22.

[5] Statutory Rules & Orders published by authority, 1921 (No. 533); Additional source for 3 May 1921 date: Alvin Jackson, Home Rule - An Irish History, Oxford University Press, 2004, p198.

[6] Article 4 of the Constitution of Ireland and Section 2 of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948.

[7] Article 4 of the Constitution of Ireland

[8] Section 2 of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948.

[workforall-9] "EU: Causes of Growth differentials in Europe", WAWFA think tank

[autogenerated1-10] NCC: 2.1 Income

[11] List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita

[12] [1]

[13] The wording of Article 4 has been criticised. Most recently, in its report, the Constitution Review Groupin 1996 stated that Article 4 was unnecessarily complicated and should be amended to read "The name of the state is Ireland" with an equivalent change in the Irish text.

[14] Ireland joined the EU (then EEC) in 1973 under a treaty drawn up in several languages including Irish and English. Since then, its two names have been official in the EU. Irish became an official working language of the European Union on 1 January 2007 and consequently both names are now used on nameplates. This did not change the name of Ireland in EU law. For further consideration of the practice applied by the European Union, see Clause 7.1.1 of the Inter Institutional Style Guide.

[15] Casey, James, Constitutional Law in Ireland, ISBN 9781899738632, p. 31, in reference to the Ellis v O'Dea extradition case.

[16] "Heritage Ireland - Céide Fields". Heritage Ireland. Retrieved 2008-10-23.

[neolithic_farming-17] "The Neolithic Stone Age in Ireland : Farming". The Ireland Story. Wesley Johnson. 2000. Retrieved 2008-11-07.

[18] Oppenheimer, Stephen (October 2006). "Myths of British ancestry". Prospect Magazine (127). Prospect Magazine. Retrieved 2008-11-07.

[19] Mascheretti, Silvia (2003-08-07). "How did pygmy shrews colonize Ireland? Clues from a phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences". Proceedings of the Royal Society. 270 (1524). Royal Society: 1593. doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.2406. Retrieved 2008-11-07. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[20] "Hibernia". Roman Empire. United Nations of Roma Victrix. Retrieved 2008-11-08.

[21] "Scotia". The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition 2001–05. Bartleby.com. 2007. Retrieved 2008-11-08. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[22] "The Geography of Ptolemy". Roman-Britain.org. 2003-04-23. Retrieved 2008-11-08.

[23] De Paor, Liam (1993). Saint Patrick's World: The Christian Culture of Ireland's Apostolic Age. Dublin: Four Courts, Dublin. p. pp. 78, 79. ISBN 1-85182-144-9. {{cite book}}: |page= has extra text (help)

[cah-24] Cahill, Tim (1996). How the Irish Saved Civilization. Anchor Books. ISBN 0385418493.

[Eer-25] Dowley, Tim; et al., eds. (1977). Eerdman's Handbook to the History of Christianity. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. ISBN 0-8028-3450-7. {{cite book}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |editor= (help)

[26] Chrisafis, Angelique (2005-01-25). "Scion of traitors and warlords: why Bush is coy about his Irish links". World News. The Guardian. Retrieved 2008-11-08.

[27] Ibeji, Mike. "Black death: The spread of the Plague: Ireland". British History: Middle Ages. BBC. Retrieved 2008-11-08.

[28] "The curse of Cromwell". A Short History of Ireland. BBC Northern Ireland. Retrieved 2008-11-08.

[29] Philip McKeiver; A New History of Cromwell's Irish Campaign,Advance Press, 2007, ISBN 978-0-9554663-0-4

[30] "Laws in Ireland for the Suppression of Popery". University of Minnesota Law School. Retrieved 2008-11-08.

[31] Ward, Alan J. (1994). The Irish Constitutional Tradition: Responsible Government and Modern Ireland, 1782-1992. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press. p. p. 28. ISBN 0-81320-784-3. {{cite book}}: |page= has extra text (help)

[32] "The Irish Potato Famine". Digital History. 2008-11-07. Retrieved 2008-11-08.

[33] "Irish-American Heritage Month (March) and St. Patrick's Day (17 March) 2007". Press releases. U.S Census Bureau. 2007-01-17. Retrieved 2008-11-08.

[34] Vallely, Paul (2006-04-25). "1841: A window on Victorian Britain - This Britain". The Independent. Retrieved 2009-04-16.

[35] Quinn, Eamon (2007-08-19). "Ireland Learns to Adapt to a Population Growth Spurt". Europe. New York Times. Retrieved 2008-11-08.

[36] Kee, Robert (1972). The Green Flag: A History of Irish Nationalism. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson. pp. pp. 376–400. ISBN 029717987X. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)

[37] Kee, Robert (1972). The Green Flag: A History of Irish Nationalism. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson. pp. pp. 478–530. ISBN 029717987X. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)

[38] Kee, Robert (1972). The Green Flag: A History of Irish Nationalism. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson. pp. pp. 719–748. ISBN 029717987X. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)

[39] Connolly, Kevin (2004-06-01). "Irish who fought on the beaches". Northern Ireland News. BBC. Retrieved 2008-11-08.

[clancy3-40] Clancy, Patrick (1997). Irish Society: Sociological Perspectives. Institute of Public Administration. pp. pp. 68–70. ISBN 1872002870. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[41] "Ireland considering immigration deal with U.S." Politics. Reuters. 2006-10-25. Retrieved 2008-11-08.

[42] Northern Ireland Parliamentary Report, 7 December 1922

[43] Mokyr, Joel (1984). "New Developments in Irish Population History 1700-1850". Irish Economic and Social History. xi: 101–121.

[44] Department of the Taoiseach - Irish Soldiers in the First World War

[45] Northern Ireland Parliamentary Report, 7 December 1922

[46] the Governor-General's office was finally abolished under the Executive Powers (Consequential Provisions) Act, 1937 with effect from December 1936

[tiger-47] "How Ireland became the Celtic Tiger", Sean Dorgan, the Chief Executive of IDA. 23 June, 2006

[tcdtax-48] O'Toole, Francis. "Taxations And savings in Ireland" (PDF). Trinity Economic Papers Series. Trinity College, Dublin. pp. page 19. Retrieved 2008-06-17. {{cite web}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[49] The Myth of the Scandinavian Model | The Brussels Journal

[50] Article 15.2 of the Constitution of Ireland.

[rte-51] "Ireland Rejects Lisbon Treaty". RTE News. Retrieved 2008-06-13.

[52] See section 10(7) of the Local Government Act 2001

[53] ttp://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&hl=en&geocode=&q=oil+and+gas+fields+in+ireland&ie=UTF8&ll=53.592505,-9.030762&spn=6.274516,19.775391&z=6

[54] "Tipperary geography". Discoverireland.ie. Retrieved 2008-01-28.

[55] "Kerry: Key Facts". Discoverireland.ie. Retrieved 2008-01-28.

[56] "Highest Mountains in Ireland". Ordnance Survey of Ireland. Retrieved 2008-01-11.

[57] "500 m Irish Mountains". MountainViews.com. Retrieved 2008-01-11.

[osilakes-58] "Largest Lakes in Ireland". Ordnance Survey of Ireland. Retrieved 2008-01-11.

[land_cover-59] Land cover and land use, Environmental Protection Agency, 2000, retrieved 2007-07-30

[water_contamination-60] World Factbook - Ireland, CIA, 2007, retrieved 2007-08-07

[cap_reforms-61] CAP reform - a long-term perspective for sustainable agriculture, European Commission, retrieved 2007-07-30

[62] Roche, Dick (2006-11-08), National Parks, vol. 185, Seanad Éireann, retrieved 2007-07-30 Seanad Debate involving Former Minister for Environment Heritage and Local Government

[63] ttp://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/42/8/39700724.pdf

[64] ttp://irishresources.wordpress.com/2008/07/15/irish-mines-now-operating-tara-galmoy-and-lisheen

[65] ttp://www.finfacts.ie/irelandeconomy/usmultinationalprofitsireland.htm

[66] ttp://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,348682,00.html

[67] ttp://www.bordgais.ie/

[68] ttp://www.independent.ie/national-news/ireland-on-the-verge-of-an-oil-and-gas-bonanza-679889.html

[69] Charles Smith, article: 'Ireland', in Wankel, C. (ed.) Encyclopedia of Business in Today's World, California, USA, 2009.

[70] Template:PDFlink - CSO

[IrishInd7Aug08-71] Guider, Ian (7 August 2008). "Inflation falls to 4.4pc". Irish Independent. Retrieved 2008-08-08. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[CSO7Aug2008-72] Template:PDFlink – Central Statistics Office (Ireland). Retrieved on 2008-08-08.

[73] Template:PDFlink - The Economist

[oecd_survey-74] Economic Survey of Ireland 2006: Keeping public finances on track, OECD, 2006, retrieved 2007-07-30

[rte_article_slowdown-75] House slowdown sharper than expected, RTÉ, 2007-08-03, retrieved 2007-08-06

[ptsb_index-76] Latest Report: Latest edition of permanent tsb / ESRI House price index - May 2007, Permanent TSB, ESRI, retrieved 2007-08-10

[77] Income Distribution and Poverty in the OECD Area, Chapter 10 in "Combating Poverty in Europe"

[78] Template:PDFlink CSO, 2004.

[79] Coverage of ESRI report

[80] Ambrose Evans-Pritchard (13 March 2008). "Irish banks may need life-support as property prices crash". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2008-03-13.

[81] ttp://www.cso.ie

[82] [2] The Times, Ireland's economy loses coveted AAA rating

[83] Design for Irish coin denominations

[84] Irish Defence Forces, Army (accessed 15 June 2006)

[85] See Gilland, Karin. "Ireland: Neutrality and the International Use of Force", p. 143, in Philip P. Everts and Pierangelo Isernia, Public Opinion and the International Use of Force, Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0415218047.

[86] "Minister for Defence, Mr. Willie O'Dea TD secures formal Cabinet approval today for Ireland's participation in an EU Battlegroup". Department of Defense. Retrieved 2008-08-26.

[87] "Private Members' Business. - Foreign Conflicts: Motion (Resumed)". Government of Ireland. 2003-01-30. Retrieved 2007-10-10. - Tony Gregory speaking in Dáil Éireann

[88] Kennedy, Michael (204-10-08). "Ireland's Role in Post-War Transatlantic Aviation and Its Implications for the Defence of the North Atlantic Area". Royal Irish Academy. Retrieved 2007-10-10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

[89] Irish Times, 28 December 2007 p. 1.

[90] Patrick Smyth (29 November 1999). "State joins Partnership for Peace on Budget day". The Irish Times. Retrieved 2008-05-06.

[91] "Signatures of Partnership for Peace Framework Document". NATO website. 21 April 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-06.

[92] Myths of British ancestry - Prospect Magazine

[93] ("Origins of the British", Stephen Oppenheimer, 2006)

[94] The Longue Durée of Genetic Ancestry: Multiple Genetic Marker Systems and Celtic Origins on the Atlantic Facade of Europe - PUBMED

[95] "Gypsies and Irish Travellers: The facts". Gypsies and Irish Travellers. Commission for Racial Equality. Archived from the original on 2008-12-21. {{cite web}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch; 2007-05-02 suggested (help)

[96] Irish Travellers Movement: Traveller Legal Resource Pack 2 - Traveller Culture

[97] BreakingNews.ie - Ireland's population still fastest-growing in EU

[98] Irish Statute Book

[99] Irish Independent - Boom in births as new arrivals double on death rates

[100] Donegal, Cavan, Monaghan only. Remaining Ulster counties are in Northern Ireland

[101] Template:PDFlink

[102] Weekly Mass Attendance of Catholics in Nations with Large Catholic Populations, 1980-2000 - World Values Survey (WVS)

[103] Irish Mass attendance below 50% - Catholic World News 1 June 2006

[104] Final Principal Demographic Results 2006

[105] Among many examples:
John Daniszewski, 17 April, 2005, Catholicism Losing Ground in Ireland, LA Times
Irish poll shows parents no longer want to force religion on to children from secularism.org.uk
Phil Lawler, 17 September 2007, Ireland threatened by secularism, Pope tells new envoy, Catholic World News

[familyplanning-106] "Health (Family Planning) Act, 1979". Office of the Attorney General. 1979-07-23. Retrieved 2007-06-07.

[norris-107] "NORRIS v. IRELAND - 10581/83 [1988] ECHR 22". European Court of Human Rights. 2007-10-26. Retrieved 2007-06-07.

[acts_commentary-108] Though Senator David Norris took his successful case to the European Court of Human Rights in 1988, the Irish Government did not legislate to rectify the issue until 1993.

[109] "Increased support for gay marriage - Survey". BreakingNews.ie. 31 March 2008.

[110] The Irish Times - News poll

[111] RTÉ News - Traditional light bulbs to be scrapped

[112] Seán McCárthaigh, Dublin–London busiest air traffic route within EU, Irish Examiner, 31 March 2003

[113] Mark Frary (2007-03-19). "Heathrow dominates top 20". The Times. Retrieved 2007-07-04.

[114] Houston, Eugenie (2001). Working and Living in Ireland. Working and Living Publications. ISBN 0-95368-968-9.

[115] Sawyers, June Skinner (2002), The Complete Guide to Celtic Music, London: Aurum, p 28.

[116] Yeats, Gráinne, The Rediscovery of Carolan, Harpspectrum.com, retrieved April 25 2008 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |dateformat= ignored (help)

[117] Haggerty Bridget, Francis O'Neill - The Man Who Saved Our Music, Irishcultureandcustoms.com, retrieved April 25 2008 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |dateformat= ignored (help)

[118] Whistle Workshop

[119] Sawyers, June Skinner (2002), The Complete Guide to Celtic Music, London: Aurum, p 48-49.

[120] Inside Ireland

[121] Sawyers, June Skinner (2002), The Complete Guide to Celtic Music, London: Aurum, p 48.

[122] Concertinas in Ireland

[123] Country House music

[124] ttp://www.mustrad.org.uk/articles/sean-nos.htm Sean nos

[125] ttp://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAEireland.htm Irish emigration

[126] Clarke, Gerry (2006), Oldtime Records Vol 1, Galway: Oldtime Records, Liner notes to CD.

[127] Spoken Arts recording #745 and Spoken Arts recording #754.

[128] Contemporary Music Ireland

[129] "Exterior of Church of Christ the King, Turner's Cross". Parish of Turner's Cross. Retrieved 2008-11-09.

[130] O'Toole, Shane (2002-11-10). "Barry Byrne: Christ the King, Turner's Cross, Cork". Buildings of Ireland. Archiseek. Retrieved 2008-11-09.

[131] "Busáras". Buildings of Ireland. Archiseek. Retrieved 2008-11-09.

[132] Clerkin, Paul. "Michael Scott (1905–1989)". Architects of Ireland. Archiseek. Retrieved 2008-10-15.

[133] Boyle on Atheism by J.J. MacIntosh (University of Toronto Press ISBN 978-0802090188), page 6

[134] MacManus, p 461

[135] MacManus, p 461-462

[136] Jerry Williams, Fans unite as top drivers battle it out, Daily Mail, 14 November 2007

[137] "The Social Significance of Sport" (PDF). Retrieved 2006-11-27.

[138] "GAA attendance figures" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-02-22.

[139] "Culture and.. Sport". Retrieved 2008-02-22.

[140] "Social and Economic Value of Sport in Ireland" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-02-05.

[141] Today Show Irish Breakfast

[142] Irish Breakfast at FoodIreland.com

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International rankings
Indicator	Rank	Measure
Economy
GDP (PPP) per capita	2^nd	$44,087
GNP	7^th	$41,140
Unemployment rate	28^th	4.30%
CO₂ emissions	30^th	10.3 t^†
Electricity consumption	61^st	22.79 GWh
Economic Freedom	3^rd	1.58
Politics
Human Development Index	5^th	0.959
Political freedom	1^st*	1
Press freedom	4^th*	2.00
Corruption (A higher score means less (perceived) corruption.)	↓17^th	7.5
Global Peace Index	4^th	1.396
Democracy Index	11^th	9.01
Failed States Index	↓ 4^th	19.5
Society
Literacy rate	18^th*	99.0%
Quality-of-life index	1^st	8.333 (out of 10)
Broadband penetration	—	25.9%
Mobile phone penetration	—	121.5%
Alcohol consumption	2^nd	13.7 L 3.0 imp gal 3.6 US gal^†
Beer consumption	2^nd	131.1 L 28.8 imp gal 34.6 US gal^†
International Property Rights Index	14^th	7.4
Health
Life expectancy		78.4
Birth rate		15.2^‡
Fertility rate	133^rd	1.96^††
Infant mortality	172^th	4.9^‡‡
Death rate		6.5^‡
Suicide rate	48^th	♂ 16.3^†‡ ♀ 3.2^†‡
HIV/AIDS rate	123^rd	0.10%
Notes
↓ indicates rank is in reverse order (e.g. 1^st is lowest) * joint with one or more other countries ^† per capita ^‡ per 1000 people ^†† per woman ^‡‡ per 1000 live births ^†‡per 100,000 people ♂ indicates males, ♀ indicates females