Foreign relations of China

For related meanings, see Foreign relations of China.

The foreign relations of the People's Republic of China guides the way in which it interacts with foreign nations. As a great power and emerging superpower, China's foreign policy and strategic thinking is highly influential. China officially states it "unswervingly pursues an independent foreign policy of peace. The fundamental goals of this policy are to preserve China's independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity, create a favorable international environment for China's reform and opening up and modernization construction, maintain world peace and propel common development."

Recent Chinese foreign policy makers may be seen to adhere to the realist rather than the liberal school of international relations theory. Thus, in sharp contrast to the Soviet Union and the United States, China has not been devoted to advancing any higher international ideological interests such as world communism or world democracy since the Cold War; that is, ideology appears to be secondary to advancing its national interest. China is a member of many international organizations; holding key positions such as a permanent member on the UN Security Council and is a leader in many areas such as non-proliferation, peacekeeping and resolving regional conflicts.

People's Republic of China maintains the Completeness of sovereignty, so the Beijing government does not allow any diplomatic partner state with which it maintains diplomatic relations to have an official diplomatic relationship with Taiwan (Republic of China), Government of Tibet in Exile or any East Turkestan Independence group.

Institutions of foreign policy

See also: Diplomatic missions of the People's Republic of China

Like most other nations, China's foreign policy is carried out by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. However, the Foreign Affairs Ministry is subordinate to the Foreign Affairs Leading Small Group of the Communist Party of China, which decides on policy-making.

Unlike most other nations, much of Chinese foreign policy is formulated in think tanks sponsored and supervised by, but formally outside of the government. One distinctive aspect of Sino-American relations is that much of the foreign policy discussion takes place between interlocutors who form the think tanks. Because these discussions are unofficial, they are generally more free and less restricted than discussions between government officials. China is also distinctive for having a separate body of Chinese strategic thought and theory of international relations which is distinct from Western theory.

History of foreign policy

Main article: History of foreign relations of the People's Republic of China

Since its establishment, the People's Republic of China has worked vigorously to win international support for its position that it is the sole legitimate government of all China, including Hong Kong (Foreign relations of Hong Kong), Macau (Foreign relations of Macau), and Taiwan (Foreign relations of the Republic of China). Until the early 1970s, the Republic of China government in Taipei was recognized diplomatically by most world powers and the UN. After the Beijing government assumed the China seat in the United Nations in 1971 (and the ROC government was expelled) and became increasingly more significant as a global player, most nations switched diplomatic relations from the Republic of China to the People's Republic of China. Japan established diplomatic relations with China in 1972, following the Joint Communique of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China, and the United States did so in 1972. The number of countries that have established diplomatic relations with Beijing has risen to 167, while 25 maintain diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (or Taiwan). (See also: Political status of Taiwan)

Both the PRC and ROC make it a prerequisite for diplomatic relations that a country does not recognize and conduct any official relations with the other party.

After its founding, China's foreign policy initially focused on its solidarity with the Soviet Union, the Eastern Bloc nations, and other communist countries, sealed with, among other agreements, the China-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance signed in 1950 to oppose China's chief antagonists, the West and in particular the United States. The 1950–53 Korean War waged by China and its North Korea ally against the United States, South Korea, and United Nations (UN) forces has long been a reason for bitter feelings. After the conclusion of the Korean conflict, China sought to balance its identification as a member of the Soviet bloc by establishing friendly relations with Pakistan and other Third World countries, particularly in Southeast Asia.

By the late 1950s, relations between China and the Soviet Union had become so divisive that in 1960 the Soviets unilaterally withdrew their advisers from China. The two then began to vie for allegiances among the developing world nations, for China saw itself as a natural champion through its role in the Non-Aligned Movement and its numerous bilateral and bi-party ties. In the 1960s, Beijing competed with Moscow for political influence among communist parties and in the developing world generally. In 1962, China had a brief war with India over a border dispute. By 1969 relations with Moscow were so tense that fighting erupted along their common border. Following the 1968 Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia and clashes in 1969 on the Sino-Soviet border, Chinese competition with the Soviet Union increasingly reflected concern over China's own strategic position. China then lessened its anti-Western rhetoric and began developing formal diplomatic relations with West European nations.

Around the same time, in 1971, that Beijing succeeded in gaining China's seat in the UN (thus ousting the Republic of China on Taiwan), relations with the United States began to thaw. In 1972 President Richard M. Nixon visited China. Formal diplomatic relations were established in 1978, and the two nations have experienced more than a quarter century of varying degrees of amiable or wary relations over such contentious issues as Taiwan, trade balances, intellectual property rights, nuclear proliferation, and human rights.

In late 1978, the Chinese also became concerned over Vietnam's efforts to establish open control over Laos and Cambodia. In response to the Soviet-backed Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia, China fought a war with Vietnam (February-March 1979).

Chinese anxiety about Soviet strategic advances was heightened following the Soviet Union's December 1979 invasion of Afghanistan. Sharp differences between China and the Soviet Union persisted over Soviet support for Vietnam's continued occupation of Cambodia, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, and Soviet troops along the Sino-Soviet border and in Mongolia--the so-called "three obstacles" to improved Sino-Soviet relations.

In the 1970s and 1980s China sought to create a secure regional and global environment for itself and to foster good relations with countries that could aid its economic development. To this end, China looked to the West for assistance with its modernization drive and for help in countering Soviet expansionism, which it characterized as the greatest threat to its national security and to world peace.

China maintained its consistent opposition to "superpower hegemonism," focusing almost exclusively on the expansionist actions of the Soviet Union and Soviet proxies such as Vietnam and Cuba, but it also placed growing emphasis on a foreign policy independent of both the U.S. and the Soviet Union. While improving ties with the West, China continued to closely follow the political and economic positions of the Third World Non-Aligned Movement, although China was not a formal member.

In the immediate aftermath of Tiananmen crackdown in June 1989, many countries reduced their diplomatic contacts with China as well as their economic assistance programs. In response, China worked vigorously to expand its relations with foreign countries, and by late 1990, had reestablished normal relations with almost all nations. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in late 1991, China also opened diplomatic relations with the republics of the former Soviet Union.

Recent foreign policy

Countries of the world indicating decade diplomatic relations commenced with the People's Republic of China: 1949/1950s (dark red), 1960s (red), 1970s (orange), 1980s (beige) and 1990s/2000s (yellow). Countries not recognized by or not recognizing the PRC are in grey.

In recent years, China's leaders have been regular travelers to all parts of the globe, and it has sought a higher profile in the UN through its permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council and other multilateral organizations.

Closer to home China has made efforts to reduce tensions in Asia; its relations with its Asian neighbors have become stable during the last decades of the 20th century. It has contributed to stability on the Korean Peninsula, cultivated a more cooperative relationship with members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) (Brunei, Cambodia , Myanmar, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam), and participated in the ASEAN Regional Forum. In 1997, the ASEAN member nations and the People's Republic of China, South Korea and Japan agreed to hold yearly talks to further strengthen regional cooperation, the ASEAN Plus Three meetings. In 2005 the "ASEAN Plus Three" countries together with India, Australia and New Zealand held the inaugural East Asia Summit (EAS). Relations have improved with Vietnam since a border war was fought with the one-time close ally in 1979. A territorial dispute with its Southeast Asian neighbors over islands in the South China Sea remains unresolved, as does another dispute in the East China Sea with Japan.

China has improved ties with Russia. President Putin and President Jiang, in large part to serve as a counterbalance to the United States, signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation in July 2001.The two also joined with the Central Asian nations of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan to found the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) in June 2001. The SCO is designed to promote regional stability and cooperate to combat terrorism in the region.

Relations with India have also improved considerably. After years of competition, general distrust between the two (mostly over China's close relationship with Pakistan and India's with the former Soviet Union) and a border war, relations in the 21st century between the world's two most populous states have never been more harmonious, as they have started to collaborate in several economic and strategic areas. Both countries have doubled their economic trade in the past few years and China is expected to become India's largest trading partner by 2008. The two countries are planning to host joint naval exercises. In 2003, China and India held negotiations for the first time since the Sino-Indian War of 1962 on a major border dispute: however, the dispute over Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh is not settled, and plagues Sino-India relations. While New Delhi has raised objections to Chinese military-aid to arch-rival Pakistan and neighboring Bangladesh, Beijing similarly objects to India's growing military collaboration with Japan, Australia and the United States.

China has border and maritime disputes, including with Vietnam in the Gulf of Tonkin and with Japan. Beijing has resolved many of these disputes. Notably on July 21, 2008 it finally resolved the last remaining border dispute it had with Russia with Russia ceding a small amount of territory to China. There is now no border dispute between Russia and China along their 4300 km border. China also reached a 2000 agreement with Vietnam to resolve some differences over their maritime border, though disagreements remain over some islands in the South China Sea.

During the late 1990s and early 21st century, Chinese foreign policy appeared to be focused on improving relations with Russia and Europe to counterbalance the United States. This strategy was based on the premise that the United States was a hyperpower whose influence could be checked through alliances with other powers, such as Russia or the European Union. This assessment of United States power was reconsidered after the United States intervention in Kosovo, and as the 20th century drew to a close, the discussion among thinktanks in China involved how to reorient Chinese foreign policy in a unipolar world. This discussion also occurred in the context of China's new security concept, which argued that the post-Cold War era required nations to move away from thinking in terms of alliances and power blocs and toward thinking in terms of economic and diplomatic cooperation.

China had long been a close ally of North Korea but also found a valuable trading partner in South Korea and eventually took a role in the early 2000s as a proponent of "six-party talks" (North Korea, South Korea, Russia, Japan, the United States, and China) to resolve tensions on the Korean Peninsula. China was instrumental at brokering talks with North Korea over its nuclear program, and in 2003, there was a concerted effort by China to improve relations with the ASEAN nations and form a common East Asian market. These foreign policy efforts have been part of a general foreign policy initiative known as China's peaceful rise. On November 15, 2005, Hu Jintao visited Seoul and spoke of the importance of both countries' contributions for regional peace and cooperation in economic development.

However, China's opposition to the bid of two of its important neighbors - India and Japan to become permanent members of the United Nations Security Council has proved to be an irritant in their respective relationships. Japan, with its large economic and cultural influences in Asia, is seen by China as its most formidable opponent and partner in regional diplomacy. The two sides established diplomatic relations in 1972, and Japanese investment in China was important in the early years of China's economic reforms and ever since. Having fought two wars against Japan (1894–95 and 1936–45), China's long-standing concern about the level of Japan's military strength surfaces periodically, and criticism of Japan's refusal to present a full version of the atrocities of World War II in its textbooks is a perennial issue.

At a national meeting on diplomatic work in August 2004, China's President Hu Jintao reiterated that China will continue its "independent foreign policy of peaceful development," stressing the need for a peaceful and stable international environment, especially among China's neighbors, that will foster "mutually beneficial cooperation" and "common development." This policy line has varied little in intent since the People's Republic was established in 1949, but the rhetoric has varied in its stridency to reflect periods of domestic political upheaval.

In 2005, there has been talk of the European Union lifting its arms embargo, however the United States has objected to this.

Foreign ministry spokesman Qin Gang made a statement about the eight-point diplomatic philosophy of the People's Republic of China:

1. China will not seek hegemony. China is still a developing country and has no resources to seek hegemony. Even if China becomes a developed country, it will not seek hegemony.
2. China will not play power politics and will not interfere with other countries' internal affairs. China will not impose its own ideology on other countries.
3. China maintains all countries, big or small, should be treated equally and respect each other. All affairs should be consulted and resolved by all countries on the basis of equal participation. No country should bully others on the basis of strength.
4. China will make judgment on each case in international affairs, each matter on the merit of the matter itself and it will not have double standards. China will not have two policies: one for itself and one for others. China believes that it cannot do unto others what they do not wish others do unto them.
5. China advocates that all countries handle their relations on the basis of the United Nations Charter and norms governing international relations. China advocates stepping up international cooperation and do not play politics unilaterally. China should not undermine the dignity and the authority of the U.N. China should not impose and set its own wishes above the U.N. Charter, international law and norms.
6. China advocates peaceful negotiation and consultation so as to resolve its international disputes. China does not resort to force, or threat of force, in resolving international disputes. China maintains a reasonable national military buildup to defend its own sovereignty and territorial integrity. It is not made to expand, nor does it seek invasion or aggression.
7. China is firmly opposed to terrorism and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. China is a responsible member of the international community, and as for international treaties, China abides by all them in a faithful way. China never plays by a double standard, selecting and discarding treaties it does not need.
8. China respects the diversity of civilization and the whole world. China advocates different cultures make exchanges, learn from each other, and compliment one another with their own strengths. China is opposed to clashes and confrontations between civilizations, and China does not link any particular ethnic group or religion with terrorism.

Diplomatic relations

Main article: Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China

Trans-national issues

The People's Republic of China has 14 neighbouring nations by land, and 7 neighbours by sea (8 if counting Taiwan). Only Russia has as many neighbouring nations (14 by land, 12 by sea). Many disputes have arisen and resolved and many yet are undetermined.

International territorial disputes

Territorial disputes with other countries include:

• Both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan) officially claim to be the legitimate government of "China", including Taiwan and nearby islands currently controlled by the Republic of China. The Republic of China (Taiwan) does not actively pursue its claims on the mainland.
• 10 features in the Yalu river are in dispute with North Korea.
• Boundary with India in dispute; see Aksai Chin, Arunachal Pradesh and the borders along the states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal with Tibet Autonomous Region.
• Portions of the boundary with Bhutan (China and Bhutan have not yet established diplomatic relations, nevertheless negotiations are ongoing as of 2008).
• Claims Japan-administered Senkaku Islands (Diaoyutai), as does the Republic of China.
• Paracel Islands administered and occupied by the People's Republic, but claimed by the Republic of China (Taiwan) and Vietnam.
• Involved in a dispute with the Philippines over Scarborough Shoal.
• Involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with the Republic of China (Taiwan), Malaysia, the Philippines, Vietnam, and possibly Brunei.
• Exclusive Economic Zone disputes with North Korea in the Yellow Sea; South Korea in the Yellow and East China Seas; Japan in the East China Sea (ja:東シナ海ガス田問題, zh:东海油气田问题); Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei and Indonesia in the South China Sea.

Refugee asylum

Refugees and internally displaced people (IDP) include:

• refugees (country of origin): 300,897 (from Vietnam), estimated 30,000-50,000 (from North Korea)
• IDPs: 90,000 (2006)

People trafficking

China is a source, transit, and destination country for women, men, and children trafficked for purposes of sexual exploitation and forced labor; the majority of trafficking in China is internal, but there is also international trafficking of Chinese citizens; women are lured through false promises of legitimate employment into commercial sexual exploitation in Taiwan, Thailand, Malaysia, and Japan; Chinese men and women are smuggled to countries throughout the world at enormous personal expense and then forced into commercial sexual exploitation or exploitative labor to repay debts to traffickers; women and children are trafficked into China from Mongolia, Burma, North Korea, Russia, and Vietnam for forced labor, marriage, and sexual slavery; most North Koreans enter northeastern China voluntarily, but others reportedly are trafficked into China from North Korea; domestic trafficking remains the most significant problem in China, with an estimated minimum of 10,000-20,000 victims trafficked each year; the actual number of victims could be much greater; some experts believe that the serious and prolonged imbalance in the male-female birth ratio may now be contributing to Chinese and foreign girls and women being trafficked as potential brides.

US State Department Tier rating: Tier 2 Watch List - "China failed to show evidence of increasing efforts to address transnational trafficking; while the government provides reasonable protection to internal victims of trafficking, protection for Chinese and foreign victims of transnational trafficking remain inadequate."

Illicit drugs

Main article: Illegal drug trade in China

China is a major transshipment point for heroin produced in the Golden Triangle region of Southeast Asia. There is a growing domestic drug abuse problem and it is a source country for chemical precursors, despite new regulations on its large chemical industry.

International organizations

Membership in International Organizations:

China holds a permanent seat, which affords it veto power, on the Security Council of the United Nations (UN). Prior to 1971, the Republic of China on Taiwan held China's UN seat, but, as of that date, the People's Republic of China successfully lobbied for Taiwan's removal from the UN and took control of the seat.

China is an active member of numerous UN system organizations, including the UN General Assembly and Security Council; Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN; UN Conference on Trade and Development; UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization; UN Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees; UN Industrial Development Organization; UN Institute for Training and Research; UN Monitoring, Verification, and Inspection Commission; and UN Truce Supervision Organization.

China also holds memberships in the African Development Bank, Asian Development Bank, Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation, Association of Southeast Asian Nations (dialogue partner), Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum, Bank for International Settlements, Caribbean Development Bank, Group of 77, International Atomic Energy Agency, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Chamber of Commerce, International Civil Aviation Organization, International Criminal Police Organization, International Development Association, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, International Finance Corporation, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Hydrographic Organization, International Labour Organization, International Maritime Organization, International Monetary Fund, International Olympic Committee, International Organization for Migration (observer), International Organization for Standardization, International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, International Telecommunication Union, Latin American Integration Association (observer), Non-Aligned Movement (observer), Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Permanent Court of Arbitration, Shanghai Cooperation Organization, Universal Postal Union, World Customs Organization, World Health Organization, World Intellectual Property Organization, World Meteorological Organization, World Tourism Organization, World Trade Organization, and Zangger Committee.

Major international treaties

The People's Republic of China has signed numerous international conventions and treaties.

Treaties signed on behalf of China before 1949 are applicable only to the Republic of China on Taiwan. Conventions signed by Beijing include: Assistance in Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency Convention; Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention; Chemical Weapons Convention; Conventional Weapons Convention; Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident Convention; Inhumane Weapons Convention; Nuclear Dumping Convention (London Convention); Nuclear Safety Convention; Physical Protection of Nuclear Material Convention; Rights of the Child and on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution, and Child Pornography Convention (signed Optional Protocol); and Status of Refugees Convention (and the 1967 Protocol).

Treaties include the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (signed but not ratified); Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous, or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare (Geneva Protocol); Treaty on the African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone (Treaty of Pelindaba, signed protocols 1 and 2); Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons; Treaty on Outer Space; Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (Treaty of Tlatelolco, signed Protocol 2); Treaty on Seabed Arms Control; and Treaty on the South Pacific Nuclear-Free Zone (Treaty of Rarotonga, signed and ratified protocols 2 and 3).

China also is a party to the following international environmental conventions: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, and Whaling.

Relations by region and country

Africa

See also: Sino-African relations and Chinese involvement in Africa

With China's growing influence around the world, Beijing has now set its efforts on Africa. China's focus in Africa is not a recent occurrence. In the 1960s and 1970s, Beijing's interest centered on building ideological solidarity with other underdeveloped nations to advance Chinese-style communism and on repelling Western "colonialism/imperialism." Following the Cold War, Chinese interests evolved into more pragmatic pursuits such as trade, investment, and energy. Sino-African trade quadrupled between 2000 and 2006. China is Africa's third largest commercial partner after the US and France, and second largest exporter to Africa after France. It is notably ahead of former colonial power Britain in both categories. Some western nations' hesitance to become closely involved with countries they believe to be poor in the human rights field, such as Sudan, have allowed China an opportunity for economic cooperation.

Country	Formal Relations Began	Notes
Angola		See Angola–People's Republic of China relations Angola is China's biggest trading partner in Africa, but the United States is by far Angola's greatest partner in economic and military aid.
Djibouti	1979-01-08	President Hassan Gouled Aptidon making an official state visit to China in December 1979. Vice Premiere Ji Pengfei would be the first major representative of China to visit Djibouti, traveling to Africa in September 1980. China helped Djibouti finance several public works projects, including the construction of a stadium and public housing. Chinese investment in Djibouti dramatically increased in the decades to follow, with China exporting $49.91 million worth of goods to Djibouti.
Egypt		China has an embassy in Cairo. Egypt has an embassy in Beijing. President Mubarak of Egypt made a five-day visit to China in 2006.
Ethiopia	1970	See Ethiopia–People's Republic of China relations Ethiopia has an embassy in Beijing and the People's Republic of China has an embassy in Addis Ababa. By 2009, direct Chinese investment in Ethiopia had reached US$900 million and bilateral trade had grown to $1.3 billion.
Kenya	1963-12-14	See People's Republic of China – Kenya relations Two days after the formal establishment of Kenyan independence, China became the fourth country to open an embassy in Nairobi. Military exchange between the two countries has been increasing in the past decade. General Liu Jingsong, commander of the Lanzhou Military Region, led China's first military delegation to Kenya in December 1996; Major General Nick Leshan, commander of the Kenyan air force, paid a return visit in 1997. Kenyan president Mwai Kibaki visited Beijing in August 2005.
Lesotho	1980s	See People's Republic of China–Lesotho relations Foreign relations between the People's Republic of China and the Kingdom of Lesotho date back to 1983, with the first significant diplomatic exchange occurring when Prime Minister Leabua Jonathan visited China later that year, followed by King Moshoeshoe II in 1985. Foreign relations were broken off in 1990 when Lesotho opened diplomatic relations with the Republic of China, although restored in 1994 when the Basutoland Congress Party ceased relations with Taiwan.
Mozambique	1960s	See People's Republic of China–Mozambique relations China-Mozambique relations date back to the 1960s, when China began to support the struggle of Mozambique's Marxist-oriented FRELIMO party against Portuguese colonialism. Diplomatic relations were formally established on 25 June 1975, soon after Mozambique gained its independence from Portugal. In November 2006, Mozambique became the thirteenth African country to be added to China's official list of tourism destinations. Hu Jintao, president of the People's Republic of China, made an official visit to Mozambique in February 2007, during which he and Armando Guebuza, the president of Mozambique, pledged further cooperation in the areas of economy, technology, agriculture, education and sports.
Namibia		See People's Republic of China – Namibia relations Governmental relations were first established the day after Namibia's independence in 1990, but relations with Namibian independence movements date back to the 1960s.
Nigeria		See People's Republic of China – Nigeria relations Nigeria and the People's Republic of China established formal diplomatic relations on February 10, 1971. Relations between the two nations grew closer as a result of the international isolation and Western condemnation of Nigeria's military regimes (1970s-1998). Nigeria has since become an important source of oil and petroleum for China's rapidly-growing economy and Nigeria is looking to China for help in achieving high economic growth; China has provided extensive economic, military and political support. In 2004 and again in 2006, Chinese President Hu Jintao made state visits to Nigeria and addressed a joint session of the National Assembly of Nigeria. Both nations signed a memorandum of understanding on establishing a strategic partnership. China has supported Nigeria's bid for a seat in the U.N. Security Council.
Somalia		See People's Republic of China – Somalia relations Despite the departure of most Chinese nationals from Somalia in 1991, the two countries maintained a small trading relationship; total trade volume in 2002 was US$3.39 million, with Somalia exporting US$1.56 million of goods to China and importing $1.83 million. In July 2007, the China state-owned oil company CNOOC signed an agreement with the Somali government to search for oil in the Mudug region of the semi-autonomous state of Puntland; a competing oil company estimated the total reserves in Puntland could amount to five to ten billion barrels of oil. However, an unnamed diplomat from a Western country stated that the Somali government had signed similar deals with other countries, which could bring CNOOC into conflict with foreign competitors over exploration and drilling rights.
Sudan		See People's Republic of China – Sudan relations The People's Republic of China, is Sudan's biggest trade partner. China imports oil, from Sudan, and Sudan imports low cost items as well as armaments from China. China and Sudan enjoy a very robust and productive relationship in the fields of diplomacy, economic trade, and political strategism. The two nations established diplomatic relations on January 4, 1959 and have since become strongly close global allies.
Zimbabwe		See People's Republic of China – Zimbabwe relations China-Zimbabwe relations date back to January 1979, during the Rhodesian Bush War. The Soviet Union supported Joshua Nkomo's Zimbabwe African People's Union, and supplied them with arms; Robert Mugabe's attempts to gain Soviet support for his Zimbabwe African National Union were rebuffed, leading him to enter into relations with Soviet rival Beijing, culminating in a January 1979 meeting in Mozambique in which both sides affirmed their intent to cooperate more closely. The two countries formally established diplomatic relations on 18 April 1980, the day of Zimbabwe's independence. Two months later, Zimbabwe's foreign minister Simon Muzenda visited Beijing to express his thanks; he was followed by Zimbabwean Prime Minister Robert Mugabe the next year.

Central Asia

As the Chinese economy booms, a major priority is securing natural resources to keep pace with demand, and investment into China's central Asian neigbhours are doing leaps and bounds to meet this demand. Chinese oil companies have invested into Kazakh oil fields, China and Kazakhstan have constructed an oil pipeline from Kazakhstan to China and are planning to construct a natural gas pipeline. In Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, China has invested in hydroelectric projects. In addition to bolstering trade ties, Beijing has contributed aid and funding to the region's countries. The Shanghai Cooperation Organization, of which China is a founding member, is also becoming increasingly important in Central Asian security and politics. Many observers believe that beyond fostering good-neighborly relations, China is also concerned with securing its borders as it emerges as a world power.

Country	Formal Relations Began	Notes
Kazakhstan	1992-01-03	See People's Republic of China – Kazakhstan relations The two nations signed their first boundary agreement in April 1994, a supplementary agreement in September, 1997, and their second supplementary boundary agreement in July 1998 to mark their 1,700 kilometres (1,100 mi) shared border.
Kyrgyzstan		See People's Republic of China – Kyrgyzstan relations As of 1996, China-Kyrgyzstan relations were an area of substantial uncertainty for the government in Bishkek. The free-trade zone in Naryn attracted large numbers of Chinese businesspeople, who came to dominate most of the republic's import and export of small goods. Most of this trade is in barter conducted by ethnic Kyrgyz or Kazaks who are Chinese citizens. The Kyrgyzstani government has expressed alarm over the numbers of Chinese who are moving into Naryn and other parts of Kyrgyzstan, but no preventive measures had been taken as of 1996.
Mongolia		See People's Republic of China – Mongolia relations The bilateral relations between the Mongolia and the People's Republic of China have been marked by territorial disputes and security issues as well as the influence of Russia. Mongolia's southern border is with China's Inner Mongolia region.

Middle East

China's Critical Sea Lines of Communication. In 2004, over 80 percent of Chinese crude oil imports transited the Straits of Malacca, with less than 2 percent transiting the Straits of Lombok.

China's fast economic growth also means that it is consuming ever more energy. China is now the second largest consumer of petroleum products in the world after the United States. China has recently been carrying out a foreign policy in trying to secure and diversify sources of its energy (oil and natural gas) supplies from around the world. The Middle Eastern region, which contains the world's largest proven oil reserve, has been the focus of that policy. Roughly half of China's imported oil comes from the Middle East.

At the same time, these energy-producing Middle Eastern nations are keen to diversify their customer base away from over dependence on the Western market (Europe and North America) as a demand source and so they have begun to look at other rapidly growing markets such as China. In addition to the deepening bilateral relationship in the trade and energy sectors, China has an expanding body of other strategic interests in the greater Middle East region. This is manifested in its security relationships with Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and Iran, which entail WMD and ballistic missile cooperation. Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Pakistan are pivotal states in the region. They are increasingly likely to view China in coming years as an alternative source of security and as a counterbalance to American power.

Country	Formal Relations Began	Notes
Azerbaijan		See Foreign relations of Azerbaijan
Armenia	1992-04-06	China recognized Armenia on December 21, 1991. Armenia has an embassy in Beijing. China has an embassy in Yerevan. Since the establishment of diplomatic relations, cultural exchange has been a major component of bilateral relations, as both nations recognize the importance of creating a strong foundation based upon their ancient and rich histories. Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Armenia
Iran		See People's Republic of China – Iran relations Iran today continues to align itself politically with the People's Republic of China as the European Union and United States push forward with policies to isolate Iran both politically and economically. Iran has observer status at the Shanghai Cooperation Organization and aspires to membership to this organisation, in which China plays a leading role. In July 2004, Iranian parliamentary speaker Gholam Ali Haddad-Adel stressed China's support for Iran's nuclear programs. [2] China's Foreign Minister, Li Zhaoxing also said that his country opposes Iran being referred to United Nations Security Council over its nuclear program, and claimed that the Iranian government had a very positive attitude in its cooperation with the IAEA. [3]
Israel	1992-01	See People's Republic of China – Israel relations On January 9, 1950, the Israeli government extended recognition to the People's Republic of China, but diplomatic relations were not established until January 1992. Israel has provided China with technological assistance in the areas of advanced agriculture and irrigation. Bilateral R&D projects, supported by the China-Israel Agricultural Research Fund, are focused on the development of new varieties of fruit and vegetables, agricultural biotechnology and applying modern technologies for processing fresh produce. Israel has built three major demonstration farms in China and several training centers which are supported by both Chinese and Israeli ministries of agriculture. Israel has also provided China with military assistance, expertise and technology. According to a report from the US-China Security Review Commission, "Israel ranks second only to Russia as a weapons system provider to China and as a conduit for sophisticated military technology, followed by France and Germany." Israel was ready to sell China the Phalcon, an Israeli airborne early-warning radar system (AWACS), until the United States forced it to cancel the deal. Since the establishment of diplomatic relations, cultural exchange has been a major component of the bilateral relations, as both sides recognize the importance of creating a strong foundation based on their ancient and rich histories. In 2007, China launched a countrywide "Festival of Culture" in Israel to mark 15 years of relations. However, China's close relationship with the Palestinians also has had a tremendous affect on its relationship with Israel.
Saudi Arabia	1990-07	See People's Republic of China – Saudi Arabia relations Sino-Saudi diplomatic and economic relations grew closer in the 2000s. In January 2006, King Abdullah was the first ever Saudi head of State to visit China. His visit was reciprocated by Chinese President Hu Jintao in April of the same year. In February 2009, Hu visited Saudi Arabia a second time, to "exchange views on international and regional issues of common concern" with King Abdullah. Following the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, Saudi Arabia was the largest aid donor to China, providing close to € 40,000,000 in financial assistance, and an additional € 8,000,000 worth of relief materials. In 2008, Sino-Saudi bilateral trade was worth € 32,500,000,000, making Saudi Arabia China's largest trading partner in Western Asia.
Syria	1956-08-01	See People's Republic of China – Syria relations China has an embassy in Damascus. Syria has an embassy in Beijing.

South Asia

China's current trade volume with all South Asian nations reaches close to US$20 billion a year. Out of all the states within the region, China has developed a strong relationship with Pakistan. This relationship extends beyond economic, defense, social and political spheres.

Relations stem from diplomatic overtures made between Deng Xiaoping and Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto during the 1970s. More recently, China has signed several free trade agreements with Pakistan as well as several bilateral trade agreements such as the Early Harvest Agreement and the establishment of a duty free export zone in Pakistan's Northern Area's. Pakistan and China continue to remain the strongest of allies and trade and contacts have steadily increased over the years. China continues to invest heavily into Pakistan, and is providing assistance in the development of that country's 2nd major port at Gwadar as well as improving infrastructure and the development of a pipeline from the said port towards China's western regions.. Cultural exchange was high, especially during the 70s, and the 90s. Trade and goodwill between citizens remain strong especially due to the bordered Muslims area of Xinjiang, who used Pakistan as a transit to Makkah for pilgrimage. Pakistani students go to China to study while Chinese workers come to Pakistan to work on infrastructure projects. Pakistan ceded a portion of Kashmir to China and both sides have no territorial disputes what so ever. They also share the Karakoram highway, the highest paved road in the world. China and Pakistan have and have believed to have collaborated on everything from Nuclear and space technology where help was provided by China to Pakistan, to cruise missile and naval technology, where Pakistan helped China get hold of western technology which it could otherwise not acquire.

China's bilateral trade with India accounts for US$13.6 billion a year, a number set to grow to US$25 billion in 2010., but its relations have been troubled because of territorial disputes and past conflicts.

Beijing runs trade surpluses with many partners, specifically Pakistan, however, also with Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Fast on the heels of the U.S. offer of nuclear power plants to India, China has offered Pakistan nuclear power plants of its own to meet its energy needs. Beijing also assists South Asian nations with low-cost financial capital, to help their development sector, especially with the current economically struggling countries of Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal

Country	Formal Relations Began	Notes
Bangladesh		See Bangladesh – People's Republic of China relations Bangladesh is third largest trade partner of China in South Asia. But, the bilateral trade between them is highly tilted in favor of Beijing. Bilateral trade reached as high as USD 3.19 billion in 2006, reflecting a growth of 28.5% between 2005 and 2006. China has bolstered its economic aid to Bangladesh to address concerns of trade imbalance; in 2006, Bangladesh's exports to China amounted only about USD 98.8 million. Under the auspices of the Asia-Pacific Free Trade Agreement (AFTA), China removed tariff barriers to 84 types of commodities imported from Bangladesh and is working to reduce tariffs over the trade of jute and textiles, which are Bangladesh's chief domestic products. China has also offered to construct nuclear power plants in Bangladesh to help meet the country's growing energy needs, while also seeking to aid the development of Bangladesh's natural gas resources.
Bhutan		See Bhutan – People's Republic of China relations Bilateral relations between the Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan and the People's Republic of China have been traditionally tense and strained and they do not maintain official diplomatic relations. China shares a contiguous border of 470 kilometres (km) with Bhutan to the north and its territorial disputes with Bhutan have also been source of potential conflict. Since the 1980s, both governments have conducted regular talks on border and security issues aimed at reducing tensions.
India		See People's Republic of China-India relations Historical relations between Beijing and New Delhi can most accurately be described as being controversial at best. Their relationship has undergone times of both war and peace. It has been characterized by both border disputes, resulting in military conflict, and by economic cooperation. Both countries, despite their belligerent mutual histories, have in recent years attempted to reignite diplomatic, military and economic ties.
Nepal		See People's Republic of China – Nepal relations The bilateral relations between the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal and the People's Republic of China have been friendly and defined by Nepal's policy of balancing the competing influence of China and Nepal's southern neighbour India, the only two neighbors of the Himalayan state.
Pakistan		See People's Republic of China-Pakistan relations Sino-Pakistani relations began in 1950 when Pakistan was among the first countries to break relations with the Republic of China on Taiwan and recognize the People's Republic of China. Following the Sino-Indian hostilities of 1962, Pakistan's relations with the PRC became stronger; since then, the two countries have regularly exchanged high-level visits resulting in a variety of agreements. The PRC has provided economic, military, and technical assistance to Pakistan. The alliance remains strong.

Southeast and East Asia

China's geopolitical ambitions focus on Southeast Asia, where Beijing is intent upon establishing a preeminent sphere of influence. China has pursued this ambition with a diplomatic campaign designed to bind the region to China - politically, economically, and militarily.

Historically, China's relations with the region has been uneasy, due to the country's involvement with the Vietnam War, the Malayan Communist Party during Malayan Emergency and Communist Insurgency War in Malaysia, as well as the Communist Party of Indonesia and 30 September Movement in Indonesia. As a result, previously friendly relations with Indonesia under the Sukarno government broke off in 1967, and were not restored until 1990, while diplomatic relations with Malaysia were not established until 1974. China's conflict with the government of Vietnam over the support of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia resulted in the Sino-Vietnamese War and other border conflicts. China's relationship with Singapore is good, and the latter is one of only three countries that can enjoy visa-free entry to the country.

Country	Formal Relations Began	Notes
Burma		See Burma – People's Republic of China relations Bilateral relations with the People's Republic of China are the strongest enjoyed by the largely-isolated military-ruled Burma (officially Union of Myanmar). China is the third-largest trading partner of Burma and provides it with extensive military and economic aid and vital diplomatic support.
Indonesia	1950-04-13	See People's Republic of China – Indonesia relations China and Indonesia established diplomatic relations on April 13, 1950, which was suspended on October 30, 1967 due to the occurrence of the September 30 event of 1965. The tension in bilateral relations began to ease since 1980s. Foreign Minister Qian Qichen of China met with President Suharto and State Minister Moerdiono of Indonesia in 1989 to discuss the resumption of diplomatic relations of the two countries. In December 1989, the two sides held talks on the technical issues regarding the normalization of bilateral relations and signed the Minutes. Foreign Minister Ali Alatas of Indonesia visited China on invitation in July 1990 and the two sides issued the Agreement on the Settlement of Indonesia's Debt Obligation to China and the Communique on the Resumption of Diplomatic Relations between the two countries. The two countries issued the "Communiqué on the Restoration of Diplomatic Relations between the Two Countries".
Japan		See People's Republic of China – Japan relations Japan had been investing in the PRC during the early 1990s, and trade decreased during the late 1990s, but resurged at the millennium. The resurgence might have been because of the prospect of the PRC becoming a part of the World Trade Organization (WTO). “By 2001 China’s international trade was the sixth-largest in the world” and over the next several years it is expected to be just under Japan, the fourth largest.
Laos		See People's Republic of China – Laos relations China-Laos relations have traditionally consisted of trade and aid, largely in road construction in the northern provinces of Laos, without directly challenging the interests of Thailand or Vietnam in the central and southern regions. However, Vietnam's invasion of Cambodia in December 1978 to unseat then prime minister Pol Pot, provoked China into a limited invasion of Vietnam—approximately nineteen kilometers deep—to "teach Vietnam a lesson." Laos was caught in a dangerous bind, not wanting to further provoke China, but not able to oppose its special partner, Vietnam. The Laotian leadership survived the dilemma by making slightly delayed pronouncements in support of Vietnam after some intraparty debate and by sharply reducing diplomatic relations with China to the chargé d'affaires level—without a full break. The low point in Sino-Laotian relations came in 1979, with reports of Chinese assistance and training of Hmong resistance forces under General Vang Pao in China's Yunnan Province.
Malaysia		See People's Republic of China – Malaysia relations China has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur, and Malaysia has an embassy in Beijing and a consulate-general in Shanghai and Hong Kong. Diplomatic relations were established in 1974.
North Korea		See People's Republic of China – North Korea relations The two countries are generally perceived to be on friendly terms. In June 2008, the Council on Foreign Relations described China as "North Korea's most important ally, biggest trading partner, and main source of food, arms, and fuel", adding that "Pyongyang is economically dependent on China", which, "since the early 1990s, [...] has accounted for nearly 90 percent of the country’s energy imports". The investments by Chinese firms in the DPRK currently account for an estimated €1.5 billion.
South Korea		See People's Republic of China – South Korea relations Trade between the two countries continued to increase nonetheless. Furthermore, China has attempted to mediate between North Korea and the United States and between North Korea and Japan and also initiated and promoted tripartite talks—among Pyongyang, Seoul, and Washington. South Korea had long been an ally of the Republic of China. Diplomatic ties between Seoul and Taipei were nevertheless severed in 1992. Formal diplomatic relations were established between Seoul and Beijing on August 24, 1992. After the KORUS FTA agreement was finalized, the Chinese government has immediately begun seeking an FTA agreement with South Korea. The FTA between Korea and China are under discussion.
Philippines	1975-06-09	See Foreign relations of the Philippines The Philippines and China established diplomatic relations on June 9, 1975 with the signing of the Joint Communiqué by leaders of the two countries. Since then bilateral relations between the two countries have developed steadily despite some difficulties. Both countries have maintained high level contacts and exchanges. Bilateral relations between the Philippines and China have significantly progressed in recent years. The growing bilateral relations were highlighted by the state visit to China of Philippine President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo on 29–31 October 2001. During the visit, President Arroyo held bilateral talks with top Chinese leaders, namely President Jiang Zemin, NPC Chairman Li Peng, and Premier Zhu Rongji. President Arroyo also attended the 9th APEC Economic Leaders Meeting held in Shanghai on October 20–21, 2001, where she also had bilateral talks with President Jiang. Several major bilateral agreements were signed between the two countries over the years Philippines has an embassy in Beijing & Consulate-Generals in Chongqing, Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Macau, Shanghai & Xiamen China has an embassy in Manila, a Consulate-General in Cebu and a Consulate in Laoag
Vietnam		See People's Republic of China – Vietnam relations The bilateral relations between the Socialist Republic of Vietnam and the People's Republic of China have been troubled by regional rivalry and border issues despite their common communist background and association during the Vietnam War. The two nations fought a brief Sino-Vietnamese War in 1979 because of China's support for the Pol Pot regime in Cambodia, but the two nations have since worked to improve their ties and cooperate.

Europe

The end of the long-held animosity between Moscow and Beijing was marked by the visit to China by Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev in 1989. After the 1991 demise of the Soviet Union, China's relations with Russia and the former states of the Soviet Union became more amicable as the conflicting ideologies of the two vast nations no longer stood in the way. A new round of bilateral agreements was signed during reciprocal head of state visits. As in the early 1950s with the Soviet Union, Russia has again become an important source of military matériel for China, as well as for raw materials and trade. Friendly relations with Russia have been an important advantage for China, offsetting its often uneasy relations with the United States. Relations with Europe, both Eastern and Western, generally have been friendly in the early 21st century, and, indeed, close political and trade relations with the European Union nations have been a major thrust of China's foreign policy in the 2000s. In November 2005, President Hu Jintao visited the United Kingdom, Germany, and Spain and announced China's eagerness to enter into greater political and economic cooperation with its European partners.

Country	Formal Recognition of the PRC Began	Notes
Austria	1971-05-28	See Austria – People's Republic of China relations Austria has an embassy in Beijing and 3 general consulates (in Guangzhou, Hong Kong and Shanghai). China has an embassy in Vienna. Austrian Foreign Ministry: list of bilateral treaties with China (in German only) Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Austria
Belarus		See Foreign relations of Belarus
Bulgaria	1949-10-04	See Bulgaria – People's Republic of China relations Bulgaria has embassy in Beijing. China has embassy in Sofia. See also Chinese people in Bulgaria Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Bulgaria
Croatia		See Foreign relations of Croatia
Cyprus	1971-12-14	China has an embassy in Nicosia. Cyprus has an embassy in Beijing. China Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Cyprus Cypriot Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with China
Denmark	1950-05-11	See People's Republic of China - Denmark relations Denmark recognized the People's Republic of China on May 5, 1950, after diplomatic relations became established. The process began in Jan 1950. On February 15, 1956, the two countries upgraded diplomatic relations from ministerial to ambassadorial level and exchanged ambassadors. China has an embassy in Copenhagen. Denmark has an embassy in Beijing and 3 general consulates in Guangzhou, Hong Kong and Shanghai. Ministry Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China about relations with Denmark
Estonia	1991-09-11	China has an embassy in Tallinn. Estonia has an embassy in Beijing and 2 honorary consulates in Hong Kong and Macao. Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Estonia Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with China
Finland		See People's Republic of China – Finland relations The two international trade organizations are the Finland-China Trade Association and the China Council for Promotion of International Trade (CCPIT). One of the fastest growing areas of trade between the two countries is in environmental protection.[4] [5] and information technology. Nokia is the largest Finnish investor in China.
France		See People's Republic of China – France relations In February 2009, former French Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin visited China. China's State media agency Xinhua reminded readers that "[r]elations between the two countries hit a low after French President Nicolas Sarkozy held a private meeting with the Dalai Lama last year in Poland", and quoted a Chinese Foreign Ministry spokeswoman, Jiang Yu, stating: "We hope the French can attach great importance to the core concerns of China." French newspaper Le Monde quoted Raffarin as saying that France had no intention of "encourag[ing] Tibetan separatism", and that France could not support a Tibetan "theocracy".
Georgia	1992-06-09	China recognized the independence of Georgia on December 27, 1991. China has an embassy in Tbilisi. Georgia has an embassy in Beijing. Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Georgia Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with China
Germany		See People's Republic of China – Germany relations Germany is China's biggest trading partner and technology exporter in Europe, and the amount of German investment in China ranks second among European countries, after the United Kingdom. China is Germany's second largest trading partner outside of the European Union, after the United States. The trade volume between China and Germany is to surpass 100 billion U.S. dollar in 2008.
Greece	1972-05-06	Each country has an embassy in the other one capital. In March 2005, Greece opened a Consulate General in Shanghai. Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Greece Greek Ministry of Foreign Affaires about relations with China
Hungary	1949-10-04	See People's Republic of China – Hungary relations Hungary has an embassy in Beijing and a general consulate in Hong Kong and Shangai. China has an embassy in Budapest.
Iceland	1971-12-08	In May 1972, China assigned the first resident ambassador to Iceland. In January 1995, Iceland set up its embassy in Beijing and assigned its first resident ambassador to China. In December 1995, China resumed the practice of sending resident ambassadors to Iceland (between 1983 and 1995, the Chinese ambassador to Copenhagen, Denmark was also accredited to Iceland). Ministry Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China about relations with Iceland
Ireland	1979-06-22	Signs in Dublin's small Chinatown predominantly use Simplified Chinese characters, indicating the residents' comparatively recent RPC provenance Both countries exchanged ambassadors in 1980. Ireland has an embassy in Beijing, a general consulate in Shanghai and an honorary consulate in Hong Kong. China has an embassy in Dublin. There are around 16,500 people of Chinese descent living in Ireland. Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Ireland
Italy	1970-11-06	See People's Republic of China – Italy relations Italian Foreign Minister Pietro Nenni presented the proposal for the recognition of China in January 1969. The Italian Communist Party had invited Chinese representatives to attend their 1969 party congress; however, the Chinese side declined the invitation. The United States maintained a major influence in commercial relations between the two countries; for example, Italy had to seek U.S. approval to sell eighty dump trucks to China in July 1970. The two countries exchanged ambassadors in February of the following year.
Lithuania	1991-09-14	See People's Republic of China-Lithuania relations Since 1992, PR China has an embassy in Vilnius. Since 1995 Lithuania has a embassy in Beijing.
Malta	1977	China has an embassy in Valletta. Malta has an embassy in Beijing. Upon mutual recognition of sovereignty in 1972, China provided a long term loan of 100 million yuan to Malta, which was used to build port infrastructure. Trade relations between China and Malta increased markedly in the 2000s, with total amounts of bilateral trade in 2002 nearly doubling as compared to 2001. In August 2007, Xiamen University applied to run a Confucius Institute at the University of Malta, through the Chinese Embassy. The agreement was finalised on Friday 12 June 2009, by Professor Zhu Chongshi, President of Xiamen University and Professor Juanito Camilleri, Rector of the University of Malta. China Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Malta
Montenegro	2006-07-06	China recognized the Republic of Montenegro on June 14, 2006. China has an embassy in Podgorica. Montenegro has an embassy in Beijing. China Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Montenegro
Romania	1949-10-05	See People's Republic of China – Romania relations Both countries exchanged ambassadors for the first time in March 1950. China has an embassy in Bucharest and a consulate general in Constanţa. Romania has an embassy in Beijing and 2 consulate general in Hong Kong and Shanghai. Both countries maintain a very strong alliance today.
Russia		See People's Republic of China-Russia relations In 2001, the close relations between the two countries were formalized with the Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation, a twenty-year strategic, economic, and controversially, (arguably) an implicit military treaty. A month before the treaty was signed, the two countries joined with junior partners Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. The PRC is currently Russia's largest customer of imports needed to modernize the People's Liberation Army, and the foremost benefactor of the under construction Russian Eastern Siberia – Pacific Ocean oil pipeline.
Serbia	1949-10-01	See People's Republic of China – Serbia relations Relations have been maintained since the recognition of PR China on October 1, 1949. China has an embassy in Belgrade and also maintains an office in Pristina based on consent of the Government of Serbia from November 2006. Serbia has an embassy in Beijing and a general consulate in Shanghai.
Slovenia	1992-05-12	China has an embassy in Ljubljana. Slovenia has an embassy in Beijing. Chinese Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Slovenia
Spain	1973	China has an embassy in Madrid and consulates in Barcelona and Gran Canaria. Spain has an embassy in Beijing and consulates in Shanghai and Hong Kong.
Turkey	1971-08-05	See Chinese–Turkish relations Turkey recognized the PRC on 5 August 1971. Turkey pursues One-China policy and recognizes the PRC as the sole legal representative of China. The PRC has an embassy in Ankara, and a consulate–general in Istanbul. Turkey has an embassy in Beijing and 2 consulates–general in Hong Kong and Shangai. Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with China
Ukraine		See People's Republic of China – Ukraine relations China has an embassy in Kiev and a Consulate-General in Odessa. Ukraine has an embassy in Beijing and a Consulate-General in Shanghai.
United Kingdom	1950-01-06	See People's Republic of China-United Kingdom relations The UK was the first Western country to recognise the PRC, on 6 January 1950. Many other countries waited for years before finally granting recognition to the PRC. c.1950 - British companies seeking trade with the PRC form the Group of 48 (now China-Britain Business Council). Both countries were firm allies during World War II, and although on opposing sides of the Cold War, were both members of the UN. Because of the Cold War, First and Second Opium War, and the status of Hong Kong, and other issues, China-UK relations at some points in history have been complicated, but better at other times. Now that most remaining issues have been settled, relations have much improved.

Western hemisphere

Recent years have seen Beijing's growing economic and political influence in South America and the Caribbean. During a visit to Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and Cuba in November 2004, Chinese President Hu Jintao announced US$100 billion worth of investment over the next decade. For instance, Cuba is turning to Chinese companies rather than Western ones to modernize its crippled transportation system at a cost of more than US$1 billion, continuing a trend of favoring the fellow communist country that has made Beijing Cuba's second-largest trading partner after Venezuela in 2005. In addition, China is expanding its military-to-military contacts in the region. China is training increasing numbers of Latin American and Caribbean region military personnel, mainly due to a three-year old U.S. law surrounding the International Criminal Court that has led to a sharp decline in U.S.-run training programs for the region

Caribbean

Further information: Sino-Caribbean relations and Cuba-China relations

Caribbean regional relations with People's Republic of China are mostly based on trade, credits, and investments which have increased significantly since the 1990s. For many Caribbean nations the increasing ties with China have been used as a way to decrease long time over-dependence on the United States.

Additionally, China's policy in the region was the use of "dollar diplomacy" or the attempts to switch many nations from recognizing Taiwan as an independent nation instead to the recognition of the "One China" policy in exchange for Chinese investment.

More recently, during various visits by several Chinese diplomats to the Caribbean region a deal was signed for China to help establish the Confucius Institute at the Mona Campus of the University of the West Indies, with a possible additional one to be establish at the Cave Hill Campus. These agreements are part of the basis of teaching Mandarin Chinese language courses at the regional University.

Relations by country

Country	Formal Relations Began	Notes
Argentina	1972-03-19	Argentina has an embassy in Beijing and 2 Consulates-Generals (in Hong Kong and Shanghai). China has an embassy in Buenos Aires. List of Treaties ruling relations Argentina and China (Argentine Foreign Ministry, in Spanish) Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Argentina
Barbados	1977-05-30	See Barbados – People's Republic of China relations Barbados-Sino diplomatic and economic relations have grown steadily over three decades. Just following election in January, 2008 David Thompson visited China from May 5 to 9. During this time both delegations signed agreements pledging to cooperate more intently. The Barbadian leader also promised that Barbados would take part in Expo 2010. This visit was reciprocated by Chinese President Hu Jintao visiting Barbados in February, 2009. In September 2009, a Chinese delegation visited Barbados where both sides discussed replacing LIAT Airlines aircraft with planes made in China. The Barbadian leader further implored that Barbadians consider learning Mandarin Chinese to bridge the language divide. China has an Embassy in Rockley, Christ Church, Barbados Barbados has appointed its former Prime Minister Sir Lloyd Erskine Sandiford as its first Ambassador to China and is planning to open an Embassy there sometime by the end of 2009. Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Barbados
Canada	1970	See Canada – People's Republic of China relations Prior to 1970 both countries were opposite sides of a bitter ideological standoff. Canada was united with other Western bloc countries in refusing to recognize the People's Republic of China (PRC) as the legitimate government of China, instead dealing with the rival Republic of China based on Taiwan. Canada and the PRC fought directly against either other in combat during the Korean War. By 1970, however, China's split with the Soviet Union and Canada's less pro-US stance lead to a rapprochement. By 1971 the countries exchanged ambassadors. Since 2003, China has emerged as Canada's second largest trading partner, passing Britain and Japan. China now accounts for approximately six percent of Canada's total world trade.
Cuba		See People's Republic of China – Cuba relations The relations are based on trade, credits, and investments which have increased significantly since the 1990s. China is Cuba’s second largest trading partner after Venezuela. At a ceremonial trade gathering in Havana in early 2006, China’s ambassador to Cuba said “Our government has a firm position to develop trade co-operation between our countries. The policy, the orientation, has been determined. What’s left is the work to complete our plans.”
Mexico	1972	See Mexico–People's Republic of China relations Recent years have seen intense export rivalry between Mexico and China over the United States market, with the Mexican government having accused the Chinese of impinging on its export territory by flooding the US with cheap goods manufactured in low-wage factories.
United States		See People's Republic of China–United States relations Relations between the People's Republic of China and the United States have generally been stable with some periods of tension, especially after the fall of the Soviet Union, which removed a common enemy and ushered in a world characterized by American dominance.
Uruguay	1988-02-03	China has an embassy in Montevideo. Uruguay has an embassy in Beijing, a general consulate in Shanghai and an honorary consulate in Hong Kong. Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Uruguay
Venezuela	1972-03-19	See Venezuela – People's Republic of China relations In 2008 the governments of Venezuela and the People's Republic of China launched their first joint space satellite, named Venesat-1. Venezuela's leader Hugo Chavez said the satellite would be a tool of integration for Latin America and the Caribbean regions by saying "This satellite is not for us but for the people of Latin America and the Caribbean. It is a further step towards independence," he said, adding that the project would break the mold of "technological illiteracy." In 2009, China entered into a partnership with Venezuela to launch a railway company in Venezuela which will be 40% controlled by the China Railways Engineering Corporation (CREC) and the remainder by Venezuela. Venezuela outlined the role of the venture as one which would link Venezuela's oil producing regions and agricultural farming areas Oil exports from Venezuela are set to increase substantially. In September 2008 China signed a series of energy co-operation deals with Venezuela with the President of Venezuela stating that oil exports could rise threefold by 2012, to one million barrels a day. In February 2009 Venezuela and China agreed to double their joint investment fund to $12 billion and signed agreements to boost co-operation which include increasing oil exports from Venezuela, China's fourth biggest oil provider. An oil refinery is planned be built in China to handle Venezuelan heavy crude from the Orinoco basin. "It is part of a strategic alliance" Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez said, after meeting the visiting Chinese Vice President Xi Jinping who stated that "our co-operation is highly beneficial". In September 2009 Venezuela announced a new $16bn deal with China to drill for oil in a joint venture with PDVSA to produce 450,000 barrels a day of extra heavy crude. When Hugo Chavez came to power, trade with China had peaked under $200mn but since then it has jumped to nearly $10bn. Chinese officials say that Venezuela has now become the biggest recipient of its investments in Latin America. Venezuela has also embarked on a programme of cultural and scientific exchange with China.

Oceania

Main article: Sino-Pacific relations

The People's Republic of China maintains diplomatic relations with eight countries in Oceania: Australia, Fiji, the Federated States of Micronesia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Tonga and Vanuatu. The Republic of China (Taiwan), by contrast, has diplomatic relations with the other six. The Pacific is an area of intense and continuous diplomatic competition between the PRC and the ROC, with several countries (Nauru, Kiribati, Vanuatu) having switched diplomatic support from one to the other at least once. Both the PRC and the ROC provide development aid to their respective allies. China's also wants to establish a preeminent sphere of influence in the Pacific Islands.

Country	Formal Relations Began	Notes
Australia		See Australia – People's Republic of China relations The 1971 visit to China by the future Australian prime minister Gough Whitlam (who at the time was leader of the opposition in Australia) marked the first signs of formal relations with Australia. Whitlam at the time promised to establish a diplomatic relationship with China, a promise which was fulfilled the following year when on December 21, 1972 Australia first officially opened diplomatic relations. Australia has a significant minority Chinese population, which has been steadily growing in number since the first gold rush. The 2006 census figures show the percentage of people in Australia with primarily Chinese descent is in excess of 3%. The election of prime minister Kevin Rudd (who was previously the shadow foreign minister) has piqued public speculation into Chinese relations with Australia, as he is the first leader of any Western nation to speak fluent Mandarin. He majored in Chinese language and Chinese history at the Australian National University and acquired a Chinese alias, Lù Kèwén (traditional Chinese: 陸克文 or in simplified Chinese: 陆克文).
Fiji		See People's Republic of China–Fiji relations The Republic of the Fiji Islands was the first Pacific Island country to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China, in 1975. Fiji's current ambassador to China is Sir James Ah Koy. China's ambassador to Fiji is Cai Jinbiao.
Kiribati		See People's Republic of China – Kiribati relations The Republic of Kiribati and the People's Republic of China (PRC) currently have no official diplomatic relations. The government of Kiribati recognises the Republic of China, and, in accordance with the "One China" policy, Beijing does not maintain formal relations with countries that recognise the ROC. However, the PRC and Kiribati maintained diplomatic relations in the past.
New Zealand		See People's Republic of China – New Zealand relations New Zealand contact with China started very early in its history with the first records of ethnic Chinese in New Zealand were immigrants from Guangdong Province, who arrived during the 1860s gold rush era, with missionary, trade, extensive immigration and other links continuing during mainland China's Republican era (1912–1949). The establishment of the People's Republic brought these links to a halt. New Zealand formally recognised the PRC in 1972. New Zealand and China celebrated 35 years of diplomatic relations in 2007. The bilateral relationship has grown to become one of New Zealand's most important. A free trade agreement (FTA) between China and New Zealand was signed on 7 April 2008 by Premier of the People's Republic of China Wen Jiabao and Prime Minister of New Zealand Helen Clark in Beijing. It is the first free trade agreement that China has signed with any developed country.
Niue		See People's Republic of China – Niue relations Niue is not a sovereign State, but a territory in free association with New Zealand. Under the terms of the association, Niue is self-governing, but New Zealand retains responsibility for the island's defense and foreign affairs. Nonetheless, in December 2007, China became the first country to establish official diplomatic relations with Niue, and, in October 2008, China's ambassador to New Zealand, accredited to Niue, Zhang Limin, visited the island to present his credentials to Prime Minister Toke Talagi. China is currently assisting the country in expanding Niue International Airport and in rebuilding housing.
Papua New Guinea		See People's Republic of China – Papua New Guinea relations The Independent State of Papua New Guinea and the People's Republic of China (PRC) established official diplomatic relations in 1976, soon after Papua New Guinea became independent. The two countries currently maintain diplomatic, economic and, to a lesser degree, military relations. Relations are cordial; China is a significant provider of both investments and development aid to Papua New Guinea.
Samoa	1976	See People's Republic of China – Samoa relations The two countries currently maintain cordial relations; China provides economic aid to Samoa. The current Ambassador of China in Samoa is Ma Chongren. Samoa has not yet appointed resident diplomatic personnel in China, but has announced its intention to do so.
Tonga	1988	See People's Republic of China – Tonga relations The two countries maintain cordial diplomatic, economic and military relations. The current Ambassador of China in Tonga in Fan Guijin. The current ambassador of Tonga in China is Emeline Uheina Tuita.
Vanuatu	1982-03-26	See People's Republic of China – Vanuatu relations China established an embassy in Vanuatu in 1989, while Vanuatu established an honorary consulate in China in 1999; it officially became an embassy in 2005. The current Ambassador of China in Vanuatu is Cheng Shuping. The current Ambassador of Vanuatu to China is Lo Chi Wai.

See also

• List of diplomatic missions in the People's Republic of China
• List of diplomatic missions of the People's Republic of China

Further reading

• Chen, J. China and the West (Hutchinson, 1979).
• Chris Zambelis and Brandon Gentry, "China Through Arab Eyes: American Influence in the Middle East," Parameters, Vol. XXXVIII, No. 1, Spring 2008, pp. 60–72. [6]

External links

• The Ministry of Foreign Affairs for the People's Republic of China - Official website
• India-China Relations
• Assertive Pragmatism: China's Economic Rise and Its Impact on Chinese Foreign Policy - analysis by Minxin Pei, IFRI Proliferation Papers n°15, 2006
• Nixon's Visit to China and How it Transformed Sino-American Relations
• China, Taiwan, and the Battle for Latin America
• Why China Will Keep Investing Abroad The New York Times, July 20, 2009
• Korea Society Podcast: China's Rise and the Two Koreas: Politics, Economics and Security