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"Vegan" redirects here. For other uses, see Vegan (disambiguation).
File:VeganSociety.png
The logo of the world's first organisation for vegans, the Vegan Society, registered in 1944.

Skinny Vegans!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Veganism is a philosophy and lifestyle that seeks to exclude the use of animals for food, clothing, or any other purpose.[1][2] Vegans do not use or consume animal products of any kind.[3] The most common reasons for becoming a vegan are ethical commitment or moral convictions concerning animal rights, the environment, human health, and spiritual or religious concerns.[4][5][2] Of particular concern are the practices involved in factory farming and animal testing, and the intensive use of land and other resources required for animal farming.

Various polls have reported vegans to be between 0.2%[4] and 1.3%[6] of the U.S. population, and between 0.25%[5] and 2.24%[7] of the UK population.

Vegan diets (sometimes called strict or pure vegetarian diets) are a subset of vegetarian diets, which are credited with lowering the risk of colon cancer, heart attack, high blood cholesterol, high blood pressure, prostate cancer, and stroke.[8] However, vegan diets can be low in levels of calcium, iodine, vitamin B12 and vitamin D. Vegans are therefore encouraged to plan their diet and take dietary supplements as appropriate.[9]

Definition

The word vegan, Template:PronEng,[10] was originally derived from "vegetarian" in 1944 when Elsie Shrigley and Donald Watson, frustrated that the term "vegetarianism" had come to include the eating of dairy products, founded the UK Vegan Society.[11] They combined the first three and last two letters of vegetarian to form "vegan," which they saw as "the beginning and end of vegetarian."[11][12] The British Vegan Society defines veganism in this way:

[T]he word "veganism" denotes a philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude — as far as is possible and practical — all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose; and by extension, promotes the development and use of animal-free alternatives for the benefit of humans, animals and the environment. In dietary terms it denotes the practice of dispensing with all products derived wholly or partly from animals.[1]

Other vegan societies use similar definitions.[13][14][15]

Demographics

Data regarding the number of vegans is available in some countries.

United States

Former democratic presidential candidate Dennis Kucinich and his wife Elizabeth. Kucinich is known for his veganism and support of animal welfare.

A 2002 Time/CNN poll found that 4% of American adults consider themselves vegetarians, and 5% of self-described vegetarians consider themselves vegans, which implies that 0.2% of American adults are vegans.[4] A 2006 poll conducted by Harris Interactive in the US listed specific foods and asked respondents to indicate which items they never eat, rather than asking respondents to self-identify. The survey found that of the 1,000 adults polled, 1.4% never eat meat, poultry, fish, seafood, dairy products, or eggs and were therefore essentially vegan in their eating habits. The survey also found that about 1.4% of men and 1.3% of women have vegan diets.[6]

Europe

In 2002, the UK Food Standards Agency reported that 5% of respondents self-identified as vegetarian or vegan. Though 29% of that 5% said they avoided "all animal products", only 5% reported avoiding dairy products.[5] Based on these figures, approximately 0.25% of the UK population follow a vegan diet. In 2005, The Times estimated there were 250,000 vegans in Britain, which suggests around 0.4% of the UK population is vegan.[16] However, a 2007 survey for the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs into the UK population's attitudes and behaviour towards the environment found that 2.24% of the population identified themselves as vegan.[7] In the same study, vegetarians who did not also eat chicken or fish made up 2.7% of the population. The DEFRA study also indicated that slightly more men than women are vegan, that more vegans live in towns or cities than the country, and that people aged 16-29 were vegan more often than any other age group.

Various polls and research conducted during the 1990s put the percentage of Swedish residents being vegan at between 0.27% and 1.6% of the entire population.[17] A study of the eating patterns of Swedish children of ages 4, 8 and 11 by the Swedish National Food Administration found that about 1% of the children were vegetarian, less than 1% were lacto-vegetarians, but found no children to be vegans.[18] The website VeganWelt estimates there to be between 250,000 and 460,500 vegans in Germany, or between 0.3% and 0.5% of the German population.[19] The Netherlands Association for Veganism estimates there to be approximately 16,000 vegans in the Netherlands, or around 0.1% of the Dutch population.[20]

Animal products

Main article: Animal product

The term "animal product" in a vegan context refers to any material derived from animals for human use.[2] Notable animal products include meat, poultry, seafood, eggs, dairy products, honey, fur, leather, wool, and silk.[3] Common animal by-products include gelatin, lanolin, rennet, whey, casein, beeswax, and shellac.[3]

Animal ingredients can be found in countless products and are used in the production of—though not always present in the final form of—many more;[21][22][23] many of these ingredients are esoteric,[24][25] also have non-animal sources,[26] and especially in non-food products may not even be identified.[21] Although some vegans attempt to avoid all these ingredients, Vegan Outreach argues that "it can be prohibitively expensive and time-consuming to shun every minor or hidden animal-derived ingredient," and therefore that doing what is "best for preventing suffering" is more important than identifying and excluding every animal ingredient.[27][28]

Although honey and silk are by definition animal products, some vegans consider their use and the use of other insect products to be acceptable.[29] The controversial term may be here a distinction between organic certified or naturally gathered honey, in comparison to honey originating from mass production (which invoves mass breeding queen bees and removing their wings to suppress the natural migration, feeding the bees on sugar syrup after their honey outcome was taken away or even killing the entire population during winter)[30].

Ethical concerns

Sows at an intensive pig farm. Opposition to factory farming is one of the most common ethical reasons given for veganism.[31]
See also: Animal rights, Ethics of eating meat, and Factory farming

Vegan organisations maintain that animals have certain rights, and as such it is not ethical for humans to use animals in ways that infringe those rights.[32][33][34] Practices seen as cruel to animals include factory farming,[31][35][36] animal testing,[3][37] and displaying animals for entertainment in circuses,[38] rodeos,[39] and zoos.[40]

Legal theorist Gary L. Francione argues that animals are sentient, and that this is sufficient to grant them moral consideration.[41] Francione argues that "all sentient beings should have at least one right—the right not to be treated as property" and that there is "no moral justification for using nonhumans for our purposes."[41] Francione further argues that adopting veganism should be regarded as the "baseline" action taken by people concerned with animal rights.[41]

Utilitarian philosopher Peter Singer argues that there is "no moral justification" for refusing to take sentient animal suffering into consideration in ethical decisions.[42] Singer argues that an animal's interests warrant equal consideration with the interests of humans, and that not doing so is "speciesist."[42] Based upon his evaluation of these interests, Singer argues that "our use of animals for food becomes questionable—especially when animal flesh is a luxury rather than a necessity."[43] Singer does not contend that killing animals is always wrong, but that from a practical standpoint it is "better to reject altogether the killing of animals for food, unless one must do so to survive."[44] Singer therefore advocates both veganism and improved conditions for farm animals as practical means to reduce animal suffering.[45][46][47]

In the November/December 1996 issue of Nutrition & Health Forum newsletter (Prometheus Books Amherst, New York), William Jarvis, founder of the private organization The National Council Against Health Fraud, after explaining that "The Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine (PCRM) aggressively attacks the use of animal foods and has proposed its own food-groups model, which excludes all animal products", writes:

"I know that meatless diets can be healthful, even desirable, for some people...Because of the influence of my Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) environment, I practiced vegetarianism for many years. My wife and I even tried to give up consuming all animal products, but this didn't work..."

Jarvis also states:

"I have learned to be suspicious, and to search for hidden agendas, when I evaluate claims of the benefits of vegetarianism.... The belief that all life is sacred can lead to absurdities such as allowing mosquitoes to spread malaria, or vipers to run loose on one's premises...Inherent in the idea that all life is sacred is the supposition that all forms of life have equal value. The natural world reveals hierarchies in the food chain, the dominance of certain species over others ...I don't believe that all research done by vegetarians is untrustworthy...I gave up vegetarianism because I found that commitment thereto meant surrendering the objectivity that is essential to the personal and professional integrity of a scientist..."

He ends adding that he can support pragmatic vegetarianism, but he believes that vegetarian ideologues are dangerous to themselves and to society.[48]

Vegans like Peter Singer follow veganism for other reasons. Singer, who does not believe that all animal life is sacred, advocates veganism for utilitarian reasons, stating that the benefit caused by a good taste for the human who consumes animal products is more than negated by the pain felt by the beings who are consumed.[49]

Steven Davis, professor of animal science at Oregon State University, argues that the number of wild animals killed in crop production is greater than those killed in ruminant-pasture production. Whenever a tractor goes through a field to plow, disc, cultivate, apply fertilizer and/or pesticide, and harvest, animals are killed.[50] Davis gives a small sampling of U.S. field animals that are threatened by intensive crop production, including many mammals, birds and amphibians. In one small example, an alfalfa harvest caused a 50% decline in the gray-tailed vole population. According to Davis, if all the cropland in the U. S. were used to produce crops for a vegan diet, it is estimated that around 1.8 billion animals would be killed annually.[51]

Gaverick Matheny, a Ph.D. candidate in agricultural economics at the University of Maryland, counters that Davis' reasoning contains several major flaws, including distorting the notion of "harm" to animals, and miscalculating the number of animal deaths based on areas of land rather than per consumer. For example, currently nearly 10 billion animals are killed each year in the U.S. for food, more than five times greater than Davis' estimated 1.8 billion for crop harvesting. Matheny says that "After correcting for these errors, Davis’s argument makes a strong case for, rather than against, adopting a vegetarian diet."[52]

Health

Main article: Vegan nutrition

The Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine recommends what they call the "Four New Food Groups."[53] They suggest that vegans and vegetarians eat at least three servings of vegetables a day, including dark green, leafy vegetables such as broccoli, and dark yellow and orange such as carrots; five servings of whole grains (bread, rice, pasta); three of fruit; and two of legumes (beans, peas, lentils).[53]

Benefits

Vegan version of the nutritional food pyramid which normally includes meat and animal products.

Certain widespread diets (such as the standard American diet, which is high in animal-based foods and low in plant-based foods) are detrimental to health, and a vegan diet thus represents an improvement,[54][55] in part because vegan diets are often high enough in fruit and vegetables to meet or exceed the recommended fruit and vegetable intakes. Conversely, based on a study in Japan, researchers suggest that increased consumption of some animal products coincided with a decrease in risk for some forms of cerebrovascular disease and stroke mortality.[56]

Benefits of vegetarian diets might be valid also for strict vegan diets: according to the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada, diets that avoid meat tend to have lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants, such as vitamins C and E, and phytochemicals.[9] People who avoid meat are reported to have lower body mass index than those following the average Canadian diet; from this follows lower death rates from ischemic heart disease; lower blood cholesterol levels; lower blood pressure; and lower rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and prostate and colon cancer.[9]

A 1999 meta-study of five studies comparing vegetarian and non-vegetarian mortality rates in western countries found equivalent mortality rates for vegans and those who eat meat regularly. The study also found equivalent and lower mortality rates for vegetarians and those who eat meat infrequently. [57] A 2003 study of British vegetarians, including vegans, found similar mortality rates between vegetarians and other groups.[58]

A 2006 study found that in people with type 2 diabetes a low-fat vegan diet reduced weight, BMI, total cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol and did so to a greater extent than the diet prescribed by the American Diabetes Association.[59]

The Humane Society of the United States on the subject of a vegan diet as prevention of cancer:

"An exhaustive report on diet and cancer was released by the American Institute for Cancer Research and the World Cancer Research Fund. Ten years in the making, reviewing more than 7,000 scientific studies, this 500+ page report is being considered the most comprehensive review ever published on the causal role of diet in cancer. The good news is that cancer is largely preventable. In addition to stopping smoking, exercising daily, and attaining a healthy weight, the expert panel recommends an overall limit on meat intake, and specifically singles out processed meat—bacon, hot dogs, ham and cold cuts—as a "convincing cause" of cancer. In general they conclude: "Eat mostly foods of plant origin". By choosing to eat a more humane, plant-based diet we can simultaneously attend to our own welfare, that of the animals, and that of our planet."[60].

Precautions

Specific nutrients

The American Dietetic Association has said that "appropriately planned vegetarian diets are healthful, nutritionally adequate, and provide health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases."[9] However, poorly planned vegan diets can be deficient in nutrients such as vitamin B12,[61] vitamin D,[62] calcium,[63][62] iodine[64] and omega-3 fatty acids.[65] These deficiencies have potentially serious consequences, including anemia,[66] rickets[67] and cretinism[68] in children, and osteomalacia[67] and hypothyroidism[68] in adults.

Vitamin B12

Deficiencies in Vitamin B12, a bacterial product that cannot be reliably found in plant foods,[69][70][66] can have serious health consequences, including anemia and neurodegenerative disease.[71] Although clinical B12 deficiency is rare in vegans,[66] if a person has not eaten more than the daily needed amount of B12 over a long period before becoming a vegan then they may not have built up any significant store of the vitamin.[72] In a 2002 laboratory study, more of the strict vegan participants' B12 and iron levels were compromised than those of lacto- or lacto-ovo-vegetarian participants.[73]

The Vegan Society and Vegan Outreach, and others, recommend that vegans either consistently eat foods fortified with B12 or take a B12 supplement.[74][75][76] Tempeh, seaweed, spirulina, organic produce, soil on unwashed vegetables, and intestinal bacteria have not been shown to be reliable sources of B12 for the dietary needs of vegans.[77][78][66]

Calcium & Vitamin D

It is recommended that vegans eat three servings per day of a high calcium food, such as fortified soy milk, and take a calcium supplement as necessary.[62][9] The EPIC-Oxford study showed that vegans have an increased risk of bone fractures over both meat eaters and vegetarians, likely due to lower dietary calcium intake, but that vegans consuming more than the UK's estimated average requirements for calcium of 525 mg/day had risk of bone fractures similar to other groups.[63][79] However, the authors of The China Study state that Osteoporosis is linked to the consumption of animal protein because animal protein, unlike plant protein, increases the acidity of blood and tissues. They state that to neutralize this acid, calcium, a very effective base, is pulled from the bones, which weakens them and puts them at greater risk for fracture.[80] The authors add that "in our rural China Study, where the animal to plant ratio [for protein] was about 10%, the fracture rate is only one-fifth that of the U.S."[81]


For light skinned people, adequate amounts of vitamin D may also be obtained by spending 15 to 30 minutes in the sunlight every few days. Dark skinned people need significantly more sunlight to obtain the same amount of vitamin D, and sunlight exposure may be difficult for vegans in areas with low levels of sunlight during winter; in these cases supplementation is recommended.[67][82][69] Mushrooms are one of the few sources of Vitamin D suitable for vegans.

Iodine

Iodine supplementation may be necessary for vegans in countries where salt is not typically iodized, where it is iodized at low levels, or where, as in Britain or Ireland, animal products are used for iodine delivery.[74][64] Iodine can be obtained from most vegan multivitamins or from regular consumption of kelp.[74][64]

Pregnancies and children

According to the US National Institute of Health, "with appropriate food choices, vegan diets can be adequate for children at all ages."[83] The American Dietetic Association also considers well-planned vegan diets "appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including pregnancy and lactation,"[9] but recommends that vegan mothers supplement for iron, vitamin D, and vitamin B12.[84][85] Vitamin B12 deficiency in lactating vegetarian mothers has been linked to deficiencies and neurological disorders in their children.[86][87] Some research suggests that the essential omega-3 fatty acid α-linolenic acid and its derivatives should also be supplemented in pregnant and lactating vegan mothers, since they are very low in most vegan diets, and the metabolically related docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is essential to the developing visual system.[88] A maternal vegan diet has also been associated with low birth weight,[89] and a five times lower likelihood of having twins than those who eat animal products.[90]

Several cases of severe infant malnutrition and some fatalities have been associated with a poorly planned vegan diet,[91][92][93] and provoked criticism of vegan diets for children.[94][95] Parents involved in these cases were convicted on charges ranging from assault to felony murder. Addressing criticism of veganism, Dr. Amy Lanou, an expert witness for the prosecution in one of the cases, asserted that the child "was not killed by a vegan diet" but that "the real problem was that he was not given enough food of any sort."[96]

Eating disorders

The American Dietetic Association indicates that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders but that the evidence suggests that the adoption of a vegetarian diet does not lead to eating disorders, rather that "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder."[9] Other studies and statements by dietitians and counselors support this conclusion.[97][98][99].

Resources and the environment

Cattle - especially when kept on enormous feedlots such as this one - have been named as a contributing factor in the rise in greenhouse gas emissions.
Main article: Environmental vegetarianism

People who adopt veganism for environmental reasons do so on the basis that veganism consumes fewer resources and causes less environmental damage than an animal-based diet.[100][101][102] Animal agriculture is linked to climate change, water pollution, land degradation, and a decline in biodiversity.[103][102][104] Additionally, an animal-based diet uses more land,[104][105] water,[106] and energy than a vegan diet.[104][107][108]

A 2006 study by Gidon Eshel and Pamela Martin, assistant professors of geophysics at the University of Chicago, found that a person switching from the average American diet to a vegan diet would reduce CO2 emissions by 1,485 kg per year.[109]

The growing demand for meat in developing countries may be increasing the greenhouse gas spiral.

The United Nations released a report in November 2006 linking animal agriculture to environmental damage. The report, Livestock's Long Shadow [110] concludes that the livestock sector (primarily cows, chickens, and pigs) emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to our most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global. It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases - responsible for 18% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO2 equivalents. In comparison, the proportion of total CO2 emissions by passenger vehicles is 12% of the total CO2.[111] It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO2) and 37% of all human-induced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO2).

The International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis argues that while most meat production in industrialized countries uses inefficient grain feeding methods through intensive farming, meat production is not invariably a poor use of land, especially in countries like China and Brazil. Since a proportion of all grain crops produced are not suitable for human consumption, they can be fed to animals to turn into meat, thus improving efficiency.[112][113] Nevertheless this does not apply to the majority of grain crops worldwide, but only to small parts of them in developing countries. Further, greenhouse gas emissions are not limited to animal husbandry; but the only known, recognizable, plant based source of methane emission is rice cultivation.[114]

A 2007 study which simulated various diets' land use for the geography of New York State concluded that although vegetarian diets used the smallest amount of land per capita, a diet which included some meat and dairy—though significantly less than consumed by the average American—could support more people on the same available land, since animal food crops can be grown on lower quality land than crops for human consumption.[115][116]

Similar diets and lifestyles

Sample of vegan Buddhist cuisine from a Zen temple in Japan.
See also: Vegetarianism and religion

Diets such as raw veganism and fruitarianism are related to veganism, but have significant differences from standard veganism. There are also numerous religious groups that regularly or occasionally practice a similar diet, including adherents to some Buddhist traditions,[117] Eastern Orthodox Christians,[118] Jains,[119] Hindus,[120] Rastafarians,[121] and Seventh-day Adventists.[122]

Cuisine

A vegan raspberry pear tart.
See also: Vegetarian cuisine
Also see the Wikibooks Cookbook articles on vegan cuisine and vegan substitutions and its listing of vegan recipes.

The cuisines of most nations contain dishes suitable for a vegan diet, including ingredients such as tofu, tempeh and the wheat product seitan in Asian diets.[123][124][125][126] Many recipes that traditionally contain animal products can be adapted by substituting plant-based ingredients. For example, nut, grain or soy milks can be used to replace cow's milk[126][127] and eggs can be replaced by applesauce or commercial starch-based substitute products, depending upon the recipe.[126][127][128] Additionally, artificial "meat" products ("analogs" or "mock meats") made from non-animal derived ingredients such as soy, gluten, or mycoprotein, including imitation sausages, ground beef, burgers, and chicken nuggets are widely available.[126][129]

See also

References

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  41. ^ a b c Francione, Gary (2006-12-27). "Mission Statement". Animal Rights: The Abolitionist Approach. Retrieved 2007-05-29. We have no moral justification for using nonhumans for our purposes. … A shorthand way of describing the view presented here is to say that all sentient beings should have at least one right—the right not to be treated as property. … This site also seeks to make clear that the moral baseline of an animal rights movement is veganism.
  42. ^ a b Singer, Peter (1999) [1993]. "Equality for Animals?". Practical Ethics (Second Edition ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–58. ISBN 0-521-43971-X. If a being suffers, there can be no moral justification for refusing to take that suffering into consideration. … This is why the limit of sentience…is the only defensible boundary of concern for the interests of others. … Similarly those I would call 'speciesists' give greater weight to their own species when there is a clash between their interests and the interests of those of other species. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  43. ^ Singer, Peter (1999) [1993]. "Equality for Animals?". Practical Ethics (Second Edition ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 62. ISBN 0-521-43971-X. The use of animals for food is probably the oldest and most widespread form of animal use. There is also a sense in which it is the most basic form of animal use, the foundation stone on which rests the belief that animals exist for our pleasure and convenience. If animals count in their own right, our use of animals for food becomes questionable—especially when animal flesh is a luxury rather than a necessity. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  44. ^ Singer, Peter (1999) [1993]. "Taking Life: Animals". Practical Ethics (Second Edition ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 134. ISBN 0-521-43971-X. In any case, at the level of practical moral principles, it would be better to reject altogether the killing of animals for food, unless one must do so to survive. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  45. ^ Clyne, Catherine (2006). "Singer Says". Satya. Retrieved 2007-05-29. If you read the book, it does make clear that going vegan is a good solution to a lot of the ethical problems. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  46. ^ Gilson, Dave (2006-05-03). "Chew the Right Thing". Mother Jones. The Foundation for National Progress. Retrieved 2007-05-29. In 1975 he published Animal Liberation, a pioneering defense of the rights of animals that concluded that veganism is the most ethically justifiable diet.
  47. ^ Broudy, Oliver (2006-05-08). "The practical ethicist". Salon.com. Salon Media Group, Inc. Retrieved 2007-05-29. If you can be vegetarian or vegan that's ideal. If you can buy organic and vegan that's better still, and organic and fair trade and vegan, better still, but if that gets too difficult or too complicated, just ask yourself, Does this product come from intensive animal agriculture?
  48. ^ Why I Am Not a Vegetarian By Dr. William T. Jarvis
  49. ^ Singer, Peter (1979). "The case against using animals for food is at its strongest when animals are made to lead miserable lives so that their flesh can be made available to humans at the lowest possible cost. ... In order to have meat on the table at a price that people can afford, our society tolerates methods of meat production that confine sentient animals in cramped, unsuitable conditions for the entire duration of their lives. ... To avoid speciesism we must stop these practices." Practical Ethics, Cambridge 1979. Chapter 3.
  50. ^ Davis, S.L. (2001). "The least harm principle suggests that humans should eat beef, lamb, dairy, not a vegan diet." EurSafe 2001. Food Safety, Food Quality and Food Ethics. Proceedings of the Third Congress of the European Society for Agricultural and Food Ethics. pp 449-450.
  51. ^ Davis S.L. (2003). "The least harm principle may require that humans consume a diet containing large herbivores, not a vegan diet". Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. 16 (4): 387–394. doi:10.1023/A:1025638030686.
  52. ^ Gaverick Matheny (2003). "Least harm: a defense of vegetarianism from Steven Davis's omnivorous proposal". Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. 16 (5): 505–511. doi:10.1023/A:1026354906892.
  53. ^ a b "Vegetarian starter kit", Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, posted on vegsource.com.
  54. ^ Segelken, Roger (2001-06-28). "China Study II: Switch to Western diet may bring Western-type diseases". Cornell Chronicle. Retrieved 2006-09-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  55. ^ "China-Cornell-Oxford Project On Nutrition, Environment and Health at Cornell University". Division of Nutritional Sciences. Cornell University. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
  56. ^ "Possible protective effect of milk, meat and fish for cerebrovascular disease mortality in Japan". Japan Epidemiological Association. 1999-08-09. Retrieved 2006-09-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  57. ^ Timothy, J (1999). "Mortality in vegetarians and nonvegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 70 (3): 516S–524S. PMID 10479225. Retrieved 2008-01-31. Death rate ratio (Number of deaths)
    Regular meat eaters (n = 31766): 1.00 (3017)
    Vegans (n = 753): 1.00 (68)     {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  58. ^ Key, Timothy J (2003). "Mortality in British vegetarians: review and preliminary results from EPIC-Oxford". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 78 (3): 533S–538S. PMID 12936946. Retrieved 2008-01-31. In conclusion, both the vegetarians and the nonvegetarians in these 3 British cohort studies have a low mortality compared with the national average. Comparisons within the cohorts suggest that the vegetarians have a moderately lower mortality from IHD than the nonvegetarians but that there is little difference in mortality from other major causes of death. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  59. ^ Barnard, Neal (2006). "A Low-Fat Vegan Diet Improves Glycemic Control and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in a Randomized Clinical Trial in Individuals With Type 2 Diabetes". Diabetes Care. 29 (8): 1777–1783. doi:10.2337/dc06-0606. Retrieved 2008-01-26. Both diets were associated with significant clinical improvements, as indicated by reductions in A1C, body weight, plasma lipid concentrations, and urinary albumin excretion. Among medication-stable participants, changes in A1C, weight, BMI, waist circumference, total cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol were significantly greater in the vegan group. The magnitude of A1C reduction in medication-stable vegan group participants, 1.23 percentage points, compares favorably with that observed in single-agent therapy with oral diabetes drugs. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  60. ^ "HSUS cancer report". Humane Society of the United States. Retrieved 2008-02-01.
  61. ^ "Vegan Health: Vitamin B12". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. 2006-07-26. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
  62. ^ a b c "Vegan Health: Bone Health". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. 2007-01-09. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
  63. ^ a b P Appleby (2007). "Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford" (fee required). European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602659. PMID 17299475. Retrieved 2007-02-25. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  64. ^ a b c "Vegan Health: Iodine". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. 2006-12-26. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
  65. ^ "Vegan Health: Fat". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. 2007-02-20. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
  66. ^ a b c d "What every vegan should know about vitamin B12". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-22. Vitamin B12, whether in supplements, fortified foods, or animal products, comes from micro-organisms.
  67. ^ a b c "Vegans and Vitamin D". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
  68. ^ a b Steven Walsh. "Nutrition: Iodine". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
  69. ^ a b Jack Norris, RD (2003-04-18). "Staying a Healthy Vegan". Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-02-22. There are no reliable, unfortified plant sources of vitamin B12; therefore fortified foods and/or supplements are necessary for the optimal health of vegans.
  70. ^ "Vitamin B12 Information Sheet". Vegetarian Society. Retrieved 2007-02-22. any B12 present in plant foods is likely to be unavailable to humans and so these foods should not be relied upon as safe sources.
  71. ^ "Vitamin B12 (cobalamin)". Merck Manual Home Edition. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
  72. ^ Jack Norris, RD (2005-07-22). "Vegan Health: Myth about How Often Someone Needs B12". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-01-02.
  73. ^ Obeid R, Geisel J, Schorr H, Hubner U, Herrmann W. (2002). "The impact of vegetarianism on some haematological parameters". Eur J Haematol. 69 (5–6): 275–9. PMID 12460231.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  74. ^ a b c "Healthy choices on a vegan diet". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-14.
  75. ^ Reed Mangels, Ph.D., R.D. "Vitamin B12 in the Vegan Diet". Vegetarian Resource Group. Retrieved 2007-02-22. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  76. ^ "Don't Vegetarians Have Trouble Getting Enough Vitamin B12?". Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
  77. ^ Jack Norris, RD. "Vegan Health: B12 in Tempeh, Seaweeds, Organic Produce, and Other Plant Foods". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
  78. ^ Jack Norris, RD. "Vegan Health: Are Intestinal Bacteria a Reliable Source of B12?". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
  79. ^ "Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford". Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  80. ^ Campbell, T. Colin (2006). The China Study:The Most Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted and the Startling Implications for Diet, Weight Loss and Long-term Health. Benbella Books. p. 205. ISBN 1-932100-38-5. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  81. ^ Campbell, T. Colin (2006). The China Study:The Most Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted and the Startling Implications for Diet, Weight Loss and Long-term Health. Benbella Books. p. 208. ISBN 1-932100-38-5. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  82. ^ "Information Sheet: Vegan Nutrition". Vegetarian Society. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
  83. ^ Messina, V (2001). "Considerations in planning vegan diets: children". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 101 (6): 661–9. PMID 11424545. Retrieved 2007-06-12. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  84. ^ Lucia Lynn Kaiser (2002-05-03). "Nutrition and lifestyle for a healthy pregnancy outcome". American Dietetic Association. Retrieved 2007-02-14. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  85. ^ ADA’s Public Relations Team (2006-10-03). "The Vegetarian Mom-to-Be". American Dietetic Association. Retrieved 2007-02-14.
  86. ^ Kuhne T, Bubl R, Baumgartner R (1991). "Maternal vegan diet causing a serious infantile neurological disorder due to vitamin B12 deficiency". Eur J Pediatr. 150 (3): 205–8. PMID 2044594.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  87. ^ Weiss R, Fogelman Y, Bennett M (2004). "Severe vitamin B12 deficiency in an infant associated with a maternal deficiency and a strict vegetarian diet". J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 26 (4): 270–1. PMID 15087959.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  88. ^ Sanders TA (1999). "Essential fatty acid requirements of vegetarians in pregnancy, lactation, and infancy". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 70 (3 Suppl): 555S–559S. PMID 10479231.
  89. ^ Sanders TA (1999). "The nutritional adequacy of plant-based diets". The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 58 (2): 265–9. PMID 10466165.
  90. ^ Steinman, G. (2006). "Mechanisms of twinning: VII. Effect of diet and heredity on the human twinning rate" (PDF, fee required). Journal of Reproductive Medicine. 51 (5): 405–10. PMID 16779988. Retrieved 2007-02-25. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  91. ^ Retsinas, Greg (April 5, 2003). "Couple Guilty Of Assault In Vegan Case". New York Times. Arthur Ochs Sulzberger, Jr. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
  92. ^ "Vegan Parents Get Prison In Infant's Death". KSBW 8. May 9, 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-17. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  93. ^ Susannah Nesmith (2003-06-07). "Parents jailed in baby's death". Miami Herald. Miami Herald Media Co. Archived from the original on 2003-12-17. Retrieved 2007-09-17. A Miami-Dade medical examiner's office autopsy concluded Woyah died of severe malnutrition, according to an arrest report. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  94. ^ Planck, Nina (May 21, 2007). "Death by Veganism". New York Times. Arthur Ochs Sulzberger, Jr. Retrieved 2007-07-17. {{cite news}}: Check |first= value (help)
  95. ^ Nipps, Emily (June 25, 2007). "Custody battle over quints questions vegan lifestyle". St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
  96. ^ Amy Joy Lanou (2007-06-25). "Just the facts: A vegan diet is safe, healthy for infants". Houston Chronicle. Archived from the original on 2007-06-30. Retrieved 2007-09-17.
  97. ^ Dedyna, Katherine (2004-01-30). "Healthy lifestyle, or politically correct eating disorder?". Victoria Times Colonist. CanWest MediaWorks Publications Inc. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
  98. ^ O'Connor MA, Touyz SW, Dunn SM, Beumont PJ (1987). "Vegetarianism in anorexia nervosa? A review of 116 consecutive cases". Med J Aust. 147 (11–12): 540–2. PMID 3696039.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  99. ^ Davis, Brenda (2002). Becoming Vegan: The Complete Guide to Adopting a Healthy Plant-Based Diet. Healthy Living Publications. p. 224. ISBN 1-57067-103-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  100. ^ Brown LR (1981). "World food resources and population: the narrowing margin". Population bulletin. 36 (3): 1–44. PMID 12263473.
  101. ^ "About Veganism: For the Environment". Vegan Action. Retrieved 2007-05-29. Animal agriculture takes a devastating toll on the earth. It is an inefficient way of producing food, since feed for farm animals requires land, water, fertilizer, and other resources that could otherwise have been used directly for producing human food.
  102. ^ a b "Environmental Destruction". Why Vegan?. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-05-29.
  103. ^ Mosier AR, Duxbury JM, Freney JR, Heinemeyer O, Minami K and Johnson DE, (1998). "Mitigating Agricultural Emissions of Methane". Climatic Change. 40 (1): 39–80. doi:10.1023/A:1005338731269.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  104. ^ a b c "Factory Farming: Mechanized Madness". People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved 2007-05-29. Factory farms are harmful to the environment as well. Each day, factory farms produce billions of pounds of manure, which ends up in lakes, rivers, and drinking water. ... Of all the agricultural land in the U.S., 80 percent is used to raise animals for food and grow the grain to feed them—that's almost half the total land mass of the lower 48 states. ... it takes more than 1,250 gallons of water to produce a pound of cow flesh, whereas it takes about 235 gallons of water to grow 1 pound of wheat.
  105. ^ "Environment: Land". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-05-29. In all, the raising of livestock takes up more than two-thirds of agricultural land, and one third of the total land area.
  106. ^ "Environment: Water". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-05-29. If we put all of these figures together, we find that whilst wheat provides us with an average 27.5 kcal for each litre of water used, beef provides only 0.76 kcal per litre. This means that - based on the data presented to show that other figures were "overstated" - beef still requires 36 times as much water per calorie as wheat.
  107. ^ "Environment: Energy". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-05-29. A plant-based vegan diet uses substantially less energy than a diet based on animal products. This energy is virtually all derived from fossil fuels, making meat and dairy consumption a contributing factor in air pollution, acidification, oil spills, habitat destruction and global warming.
  108. ^ "Resources". Why Vegan?. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-05-29.
  109. ^ Eshel, G., and P.A. Martin (2006). "Diet, Energy and Global Warming" (PDF). Earth Interactions. 10 (9): 1–17. doi:10.1175/EI167.1. Retrieved 2007-05-29. We conclude that a person consuming a mixed diet with the mean American caloric content and composition causes the emissions of 1,485 kg CO2-equivalent above the emissions associated with consuming the same number of calories, but from plant sources. Far from trivial, nationally this difference amounts to over 6% of the total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  110. ^ "Livestock's Long Shadow–Environmental Issues and Options". Retrieved 2007-01-04.
  111. ^ Regulating car emissions: How tough will Canada be?
  112. ^ NSW Department of Primary Industries - Feeding frosted cereal grain to ruminants
  113. ^ How harmful is animal protein consumption for the environment?
  114. ^ Methane Emission from Rice Fields - Wetland rice fields may make a major contribution to global warming by Heinz-Ulrich Neue
  115. ^ Peters, Christian J. (2007). "Testing a complete-diet model for estimating the land resource requirements of food consumption and agricultural carrying capacity: The New York State example". Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems. 22 (02). Cambridge University Press: 145–153. doi:10.1017/S1742170507001767. Retrieved 2008-02-07. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  116. ^ Lang, Susan (2007-10-04). "Diet for small planet may be most efficient if it includes dairy and a little meat, Cornell researchers report". Cornell Chronicle Online. Cornell University. Retrieved 2008-02-07.
  117. ^ Karma Lekshe Tsomo (2006), Into the Jaws of Yama, Lord of Death: Buddhism, Bioethics, and Death, SUNY Press, ISBN 0791468313
  118. ^ "The Fasting Rule of the Orthodox Church". God is Wonderful in His Saints: Orthodox Resources. Retrieved 2007-11-15. Unless a fast-free period has been declared, Orthodox Christians are to keep a strict fast every Wednesday and Friday. The following foods are avoided: Meat, including poultry, and any meat products such as lard and meat broth. Fish (meaning fish with backbones; shellfish are permitted). Eggs and dairy products (milk, butter, cheese, etc.)
  119. ^ "The role of religion in protecting the Earth (Jainism and the environment: precursors of modern ecology)". Forum 2004: Parliament of the World's Religions. Universal Forum of Cultures. 2004. Retrieved 2007-02-22. Naresh Jain, Co-Chair of the Interfaith Committee of Jainism Associations in North America, said that the difference lies in Jainists' strict approach to the vegetarian (or vegan) diet. "Jainism is the only religion that materialises the ideal of non-violence through the vegan diet" he said.
  120. ^ Jyoti Mehta. "Veganism and Hinduism". The Young Indian Vegetarians. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
  121. ^ Campbell, M (1982). "Rastafarianism and the vegans syndrome". British Medical Journal. 285: 1617–1618. 1617–1618. Retrieved 2007-02-22. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  122. ^ Fraser, Gary (1999). "Associations between diet and cancer, ischemic heart disease, and all-cause mortality in non-Hispanic white California Seventh-day Adventists". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 70 (3). 532S-538S. Retrieved 2007-02-22. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  123. ^ Shurtleff, William. "History of Tofu". LA Tofu Festival. Retrieved 2007-02-18.
  124. ^ Jacobs, Leonard (1994). Cooking with Seitan: The Complete Vegetarian "Wheat-meat" Cookbook. Avery. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0895295996. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  125. ^ "History of Tempeh". tempeh.info. Retrieved 2007-02-18.
  126. ^ a b c d "Vegan proteins". BBC Food. BBC. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
  127. ^ a b "Baking without eggs, milk and buttah". Post Punk Kitchen. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
  128. ^ "Vegan Substitution for Egg Whites". Ochef.com. Food News Service. Retrieved 2007-02-23. Q. What is a vegan substitute for egg whites? A. And the mystery ingredient is… flax seed.
  129. ^ Bryanna Clark Grogan. "Vegan Meat Analogs, Dairy Substitutes, and Egg Alternatives". Bryanna's Vegan Feast. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
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