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Republic of India
भारत गणराज्य*
Bhārat Gaṇarājya
Motto: "Satyameva Jayate" (Sanskrit)
सत्यमेव जयते  (Devanāgarī)
"Truth Alone Triumphs"[1]
Anthem: Jana Gana Mana
Thou art the ruler of the minds of all people[2]
National Song[4]
Vande Mataram
I bow to thee, Mother[3]
Location of India
CapitalNew Delhi
Largest cityMumbai
Official languages
  • Hindi in the Devanagari script is the official language of the union[5] and English the "subsidiary official language".[6]
Scheduled languages:
Demonym(s)Indian
GovernmentFederal republic
Parliamentary democracy[8]
• President
Pratibha Patil
Manmohan Singh
K. G. Balakrishnan
Independence 
from British colonial rule
• Declared
15 August 1947
• Republic
26 January 1950
Area
• Total
[convert: invalid number] (7th)
• Water (%)
9.56
Population
• 2008 estimate
1,147,995,904[9] (2nd)
• 2001 census
1,027,015,248
• Density
349/km2 (903.9/sq mi) (33rd)
GDP (PPP)2007 estimate
• Total
$2.965 trillion[10] (4th)
• Per capita
$2,563[10] (165th)
GDP (nominal)2007 estimate
• Total
$1.100 trillion[10] (12th)
• Per capita
$941[10] (132nd)
Gini (2004)36.8[11]
Error: Invalid Gini value
HDI (2007)Increase 0.619
Error: Invalid HDI value (128th)
CurrencyIndian rupee (₨) (INR)
Time zoneUTC+5:30 (IST)
• Summer (DST)
UTC+5:30 (not observed)
Calling code91
ISO 3166 codeIN
Internet TLD.in
Non-numbered Footnotes:

India, officially the Republic of India (Template:Lang-hi Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east, India has a coastline of Template:Km to mi.[13] It borders Pakistan to the west;[14] People's Republic of China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Indonesia in the Indian Ocean.

Home to the Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history.[15] Four major world religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated there, while Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by the British East India Company from the early eighteenth century and colonised by the United Kingdom from the mid-nineteenth century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by widespread nonviolent resistance.

India is a republic consisting of 28 states and seven union territories with a parliamentary system of democracy. It has the world's twelfth largest economy at market exchange rates and the fourth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms have transformed it into the second fastest growing large economy;[16] however, it still suffers from high levels of poverty,[17] illiteracy, and malnutrition. A pluralistic, multilingual, and multiethnic society, India is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats.

Etymology

Main article: Names of India

The name India (Template:PronEng) is derived from Indus, which is derived from the Old Persian word Hindu, from Sanskrit Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the Indus River.[18] The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi (Ινδοί), the people of the Indus.[19] The Constitution of India and common usage in various Indian languages also recognise Bharat (pronunciationⓘ, /bʰɑːrət̪/) as an official name of equal status.[20] Hindustan (/hin̪d̪ust̪ɑːn/ⓘ), which is the Persian word for “Land of the Hindus” and historically referred to northern India, is also occasionally used as a synonym for all of India.[21]

History

Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, sixth century
Main articles: History of India and History of the Republic of India

Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared over 9,000 years ago and gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,[22] dating back to 3300 BCE in western India. It was followed by the Vedic period, which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 500s BCE. From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the Mahajanapadas were established across the country.[23]

In the third century BCE, most of South Asia was united into the Maurya Empire by Chandragupta Maurya and flourished under Ashoka the Great.[24] From the third century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient "India's Golden Age."[25][26] Empires in Southern India included those of the Chalukyas, the Cholas and the Vijayanagara Empire. Science, engineering, art, literature, astronomy, and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings.

Following invasions from Central Asia between the tenth and twelfth centuries, much of North India came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire. Under the rule of Akbar the Great, India enjoyed much cultural and economic progress as well as religious harmony.[27][28] Mughal emperors gradually expanded their empires to cover large parts of the subcontinent. However, in North-Eastern India, the dominant power was the Ahom kingdom of Assam, among the few kingdoms to have resisted Mughal subjugation.

From the sixteenth century, European powers such as Portugal, the Netherlands, France, and the United Kingdom established trading posts and later took advantage of internal conflicts to establish colonies in the country. By 1856, most of India was under the control of the British East India Company.[29] A year later, a nationwide insurrection of rebelling military units and kingdoms, known as India's First War of Independence or the Sepoy Mutiny, seriously challenged the Company's control but eventually failed. As a result of the instability, India was brought under the direct rule of the British Crown.

Mahatma Gandhi (right) with Jawaharlal Nehru, 1937. Nehru would go on to become India's first prime minister in 1947.

In the twentieth century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress and other political organisations. Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi led millions of people in national campaigns of non-violent civil disobedience.[30] On 15 August 1947, India gained independence from British rule, but at the same time Muslim-majority areas were partitioned to form a separate state of Pakistan.[31] On 26 January 1950, India became a republic and a new constitution came into effect.[9]

Since independence, India has faced challenges from religious violence, casteism, naxalism, terrorism and regional separatist insurgencies, especially in Jammu and Kashmir and Northeast India. Since the 1990s terrorist attacks have affected many Indian cities. India has unresolved territorial disputes with China, which in 1962 escalated into the Sino-Indian War; and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, 1971 and 1999. India is a founding member of the United Nations (as British India) and the Non-Aligned Movement. In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test[32] and five more tests in 1998, making India a nuclear state.[32] Beginning in 1991, significant economic reforms[33] have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, increasing its global clout.[16]

Government

Main article: Government of India

The Constitution of India, the longest and the most exhaustive constitution of any independent nation in the world, came into force on January 26, 1950.[34] The preamble of the constitution defines India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.[35] India has a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. Its form of government was traditionally described as being 'quasi-federal' with a strong centre and weaker states,[36] but it has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic and social changes.[37]

The President of India is the head of state[38] elected indirectly by an electoral college[39] for a five-year term.[40][41] The Prime Minister is the head of government and exercises most executive powers.[38] Appointed by the President,[42] the Prime Minister is by convention supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of Parliament.[38] The executive branch consists of the President, Vice-President, and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet being its executive committee) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature, with the Prime Minister and his Council being directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament.[43] Template:Indian symbols

The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament, which consists of the upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of People).[44] The Rajya Sabha, a permanent body, has 245 members serving staggered six year terms.[45] Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures in proportion to the state's population.[45] 543 of the Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote to represent individual constituencies for five year terms.[45] The other two members are nominated by the President from the Anglo-Indian community if the President is of the opinion that community is not adequately represented.[45]

India has a unitary three-tier judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, twenty-one High Courts, and a large number of trial courts.[46] The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts.[47] It is judicially independent,[46] and has the power to declare the law and to strike down union or state laws which contravene the Constitution.[48] The role as the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution is one of the most important functions of the Supreme Court.[49]

Politics

Main article: Politics of India
The North Block, in New Delhi, houses key government offices.

At the federal level, India is the most populous democracy in the world.[50][51] For most of the years since independence, the federal government has been led by the Indian National Congress (INC).[52] Politics in the states have been dominated by several national parties including the INC, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)) and various regional parties. From 1950 to 1990, barring two brief periods, the INC enjoyed a parliamentary majority. The INC was out of power between 1977 and 1980, when the Janata Party won the election owing to public discontent with the state of emergency declared by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. In 1989, a Janata Dal-led National Front coalition in alliance with the Left Front coalition won the elections but managed to stay in power for only two years.[53] As the 1991 elections gave no political party a majority, the INC formed a minority government under Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and was able to complete its five-year term.[54]

The years 1996–1998 were a period of turmoil in the federal government with several short-lived alliances holding sway. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996, followed by the United Front coalition that excluded both the BJP and the INC. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) with several other parties and became the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term.[55] In the 2004 Indian elections, the INC won the largest number of Lok Sabha seats and formed a government with a coalition called the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), supported by various left-leaning parties and members opposed to the BJP.[56]

Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of India and Indian Armed Forces
The Sukhoi-30 MKI is part of the Indian Air Force.

Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relationships with most nations. It took a leading role in the 1950s by advocating the independence of European colonies in Africa and Asia.[57] India was involved in two brief military interventions in neighboring countries - Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri Lanka and Operation Cactus in Maldives. India is member of the Commonwealth of Nations and a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement.[58] After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India's relationship with the Soviet Union warmed at the expense of ties with the United States and continued to remain so until the end of the Cold War. India has fought three wars with Pakistan, primarily over Kashmir but it also facilitated the creation of Bangladesh in 1971.[59] Additional skirmishes have taken place between the two nations particularly in 1984 over Siachen Glacier and in 1999 over Kargil.

In recent years, relations between the United States and India have improved. Shown here are PM Manmohan Singh and President George W. Bush exchanging handshakes in March, 2006.

In recent years, India has played an influential role in the ASEAN,[60] SAARC, and the WTO.[61] India has provided as many as 55,000 Indian military and police personnel to serve in thirty-five UN peace keeping operations across four continents.[62] Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has consistently refused to sign the CTBT and the NPT, preferring instead to maintain sovereignty over its nuclear program. Recent overtures by the Indian government have strengthened relations with the United States, China and Pakistan. In the economic sphere, India has close relationships with other developing nations in South America, Asia and Africa.

India maintains the third-largest military force in the world, which consists of the Indian Army, Navy and Air Force.[9] Auxiliary forces such as the Paramilitary Forces, the Coast Guard, and the Strategic Forces Command also come under the military's purview. The President of India is the supreme commander of the Indian armed forces. India maintains close defence cooperation with Russia, France and Israel, who are the chief suppliers of arms. The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has overseen the indigenous development of sophisticated arms and military equipment, including ballistic missiles, fighter aircrafts and main battle tanks, to reduce India's dependence on foreign imports. India became a nuclear power in 1974 after conducting an initial nuclear test, Operation Smiling Buddha and further underground testing in 1998. India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy.[63] On 10 October, 2008 Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement was signed, prior to which India received the IAEA and NSG waivers, ending restrictions on nuclear technology commerce.[64]

Subdivisions

Main article: Subdivisions of India

India is a federal republic of twenty-eight states and seven Union Territories.[52] All states, and the two union territories of Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi have elected governments. The other five union territories have centrally appointed administrators and hence are under direct rule of the President. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were formed on a linguistic basis.[65] Since then, this structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is further divided into 610 districts for basic governance and administration.[66] The districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and eventually into villages.

Template:India states

Geography

Main article: Geography of India
See also: Geological history of India and Climate of India
Topographic map of India.

India, the major portion of the Indian subcontinent, sits atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.[67]

India's defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a northeastwards drift—lasting fifty million years—across the then unformed Indian Ocean.[67] The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountains, which now abut India in the north and the north-east.[67] In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough, which, having gradually been filled with river-borne sediment,[68] now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[69] To the west of this plain, and cut off from it by the Aravalli Range, lies the Thar Desert.[70] The original Indian plate now survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India, and extending as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel ranges run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.[71] To their south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the left and right by the coastal ranges, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats respectively;[72] the plateau contains the oldest rock formations in India, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6°44' and 35°30' north latitude[73] and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude.[74]

India's coast is Template:Km to mi long; of this distance, Template:Km to mi belong to peninsular India, and Template:Km to mi to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands.[13] According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coast consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky coast including cliffs, and 46% mudflats or marshy coast.[13]

Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.[75] Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi, whose extremely low gradient causes disastrous floods every year. Major peninsular rivers whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;[76] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.[77] Among notable coastal features of India are the marshy Rann of Kutch in western India, and the alluvial Sundarbans delta, which India shares with Bangladesh.[78] India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.[79]

India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the monsoons.[80] The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.[81][82] The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.[80] Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane.[83]

Flora and fauna

Main articles: Flora of India and Fauna of India

Template:Indian image rotation

India, which lies within the Indomalaya ecozone, displays significant biodiversity. One of eighteen megadiverse countries, it is home to 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of all avian, 6.2% of all reptilian, 4.4% of all amphibian, 11.7% of all fish, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.[84] Many ecoregions, such as the shola forests, exhibit extremely high rates of endemism; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic.[85][86] India's forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and North-East India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; the teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.[87] Important Indian trees include the medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies. The pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment.

Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, to which India originally belonged. Peninsular India's subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.[88] Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya.[87] Consequently, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians.[84] Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species.[89] These include the Asiatic Lion, the Bengal Tiger, and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.

In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act[90] and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat; in addition, the Forest Conservation Act[91] was enacted in 1980. Along with more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries, India hosts thirteen biosphere reserves,[92] four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[93]

Economy

Main article: Economy of India
See also: Economic development in India
The Bombay Stock Exchange, in Mumbai, is Asia's oldest and India's largest stock exchange.

For most of its post-independence history, India adhered to a quasi-socialist approach with strict government control over private sector participation, foreign trade and foreign direct investment. However, since 1991, India has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms and reduced government controls on foreign trade and investment.[33] Foreign exchange reserves have risen from US$5.8 billion in March 1991 to US$308 billion on 4 July 2008,[94] while federal and state budget deficits have decreased.[95] Privatisation of publicly owned companies and the opening of certain sectors to private and foreign participation has continued amid political debate.[96][97] India's GDP in terms of USD exchange-rate is US$1.089 trillion. When measured in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP), India has the world's fourth largest GDP at US$4.726 trillion. India's per capita income (nominal) is US$977, while its per capita (PPP) is US$2700.

With an average annual GDP growth rate of 5.7% for the past two decades, the economy is among the fastest growing in the world.[98] India has the world's second largest labour force, with 516.3 million people, 60% of whom are employed in agriculture and related industries; 28% in services and related industries; and 12% in industry.[9] Major agricultural crops include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes. The agricultural sector accounts for 28% of GDP; the service and industrial sectors make up 54% and 18% respectively. Major industries include automobiles, cement, chemicals, consumer electronics, food processing, machinery, mining, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, steel, transportation equipment, and textiles. Along with India’s fast economic growth comes its growing demand for energy. According to the Energy Information Administration, India is the sixth largest consumer of oil and third largest consumer of coal.[99]

Although the Indian economy has grown steadily over the last two decades; its growth has been uneven when comparing different social groups, economic groups, geographic regions, and rural and urban areas.[100] Income inequality in India is relatively small (Gini coefficient: 36.8 in year 2004),[11] though it has been increasing of late. Wealth distribution in India is fairly uneven, with the top 10% of income groups earning 33% of the income.[101] Despite significant economic progress, a quarter of the nation's population earns less than the government-specified poverty threshold of $0.40 per day. In 2004–2005, 27.5% of the population was living below the poverty line.[17]

More recently, India has capitalised on its large pool of educated, English-speaking people, and trained professionals to become an important outsourcing destination for multinational corporations and a popular destination for medical tourism.[102] India has also become a major exporter of software as well as financial, research, and technological services. Its natural resources include arable land, bauxite, chromite, coal, diamonds, iron ore, limestone, manganese, mica, natural gas, petroleum, and titanium ore.[52]

In 2007, exports stood at US$145 billion and imports were around US$$217 billion.[103] Textiles, jewellery, engineering goods and software are major export commodities. While crude oil, machineries, fertilizers, and chemicals are major imports. India's most important trading partners are the United States, the European Union, and China.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of India
See also: Religion in India, Languages of India, and Ethnic groups of South Asia
Population density map of India.

With an estimated population of 1.13 billion,[9] India is the world's second most populous country. Almost 70% of Indians reside in rural areas, although in recent decades migration to larger cities has led to a dramatic increase in the country's urban population. India's largest cities are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Calcutta), Chennai (formerly Madras), Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore), Hyderabad and Ahmedabad.[52]

India is the most culturally, linguistically and genetically diverse geographical entity after the African continent.[52] India is home to two major linguistic families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the population) and Dravidian (spoken by about 24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families. Hindi, with the largest number of speakers,[104] is the official language of the union.[105] English, which is extensively used in business and administration, has the status of a 'subsidiary official language;'[106] it is also important in education, especially as a medium of higher education. The constitution also recognises in particular 21 other languages that are either abundantly spoken or have classical status. While Tamil and Sanskrit have been studied as classical languages for many years,[107] the Government of India, using its own criteria, has also accorded classical language status to Kannada and Telugu.[108] The number of dialects in India is as high as 1,652.[109]

Over 800 million Indians (80.5%) are Hindu. Other religious groups include Muslims (13.4%), Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.9%), Buddhists (0.8%), Jains (0.4%), Jews, Zoroastrians, Bahá'ís and others.[110] Tribals constitute 8.1% of the population.[111]

India's literacy rate is 64.8% (53.7% for females and 75.3% for males).[9] The state of Kerala has the highest literacy rate (91%);[112] Bihar has the lowest (47%).[113] The national human sex ratio is 944 females per 1,000 males. India's median age is 24.9, and the population growth rate of 1.38% per annum; there are 22.01 births per 1,000 people per year.[9]

Template:Largest cities of India

Culture

Main article: Culture of India
The Taj Mahal in Agra was built by Shah Jahan as memorial to wife Mumtaz Mahal. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered to be of "outstanding universal value".[114]

India's culture is marked by a high degree of syncretism[115] and cultural pluralism.[116] It has managed to preserve established traditions while absorbing new customs, traditions, and ideas from invaders and immigrants and spreading its cultural influence to other parts of Asia.

Indian architecture is one area that represents the diversity of Indian culture. Much of it, including notable monuments such as the Taj Mahal and other examples of Mughal architecture and South Indian architecture, comprises a blend of ancient and varied local traditions from several parts of the country and abroad. Vernacular architecture also displays notable regional variation.

Indian music covers a wide range of traditions and regional styles. Classical music largely encompasses the two genres – North Indian Hindustani, South Indian Carnatic traditions and their various offshoots in the form of regional folk music. Regionalised forms of popular music include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter.

Indian dance too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of West Bengal, Jharkhand and Orissa and the ghoomar of Rajasthan. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Orissa and the sattriya of Assam.[117]

Theatre in India often incorporates music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.[118] Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances, and news of social and political events, Indian theatre includes the bhavai of state of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, the tamasha of Maharashtra, the burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh, the terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka.[119]

Template:Indian image rotation

The Indian film industry is the largest in the world.[120] Bollywood, based in Mumbai, makes commercial Hindi films and is the most prolific film industry in the world.[121] Established traditions also exist in Bengali, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil, and Telugu language cinemas.[122]

The earliest works of Indian literature were transmitted orally and only later written down.[123] These included works of Sanskrit literature – such as the early Vedas, the epics Mahābhārata and Ramayana, the drama Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā), and poetry such as the Mahākāvya[124] – and the Tamil language Sangam literature.[125] Among Indian writers of the modern era active in Indian languages or English, Rabindranath Tagore won the Nobel Prize in 1913.

Indian cuisine is characterized by a wide variety of regional styles and sophisticated use of herbs and spices. The staple foods in the region are rice (especially in the south and the east) and wheat (predominantly in the north).[126] Spices originally native to the Indian subcontinent that are now consumed world wide include black pepper; in contrast, hot chili peppers, popular across India, were introduced by the Portuguese.[127]

Traditional Indian dress varies across the regions in its colours and styles and depends on various factors, including climate. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men; in addition, stitched clothes such as salwar kameez for women and kurta-pyjama and European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular.

Many Indian festivals are religious in origin, although several are celebrated irrespective of caste and creed. Some popular festivals are Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Ugadi, Thai Pongal, Holi, Onam, Vijayadasami, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, Buddha Jayanti and Vaisakhi.[128] India has three national holidays. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Religious practices are an integral part of everyday life and are a very public affair.

Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, although urban families now prefer the nuclear family structure due to the socio-economic constraints imposed by traditional joint family system.

Sports

A 2008 Indian Premier League Twenty20 cricket match being played between the Chennai Super Kings and Kolkata Knight Riders
Main article: Sports of India

India's official national sport is field hockey, administered by the Indian Hockey Federation. The Indian field hockey team has won the 1975 Men's Hockey World Cup and Olympic gold medals. However, cricket is the most popular sport; the India national cricket team has won the 1983 Cricket World Cup and the 2007 ICC World Twenty20. India hosts the Indian Premier League, Premier Hockey League and the Indian Cricket League. Cricket in India is administered by the Board of Control for Cricket in India and domestic competitions include the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophy and the Challenger Series. Indian national team cricketers enjoy widespread popularity and hold several world records.

Tennis has become increasingly popular, owing to the victories of the India Davis Cup team. Association football is also a popular sport in northeast India, West Bengal, Goa and Kerala.[129] The Indian national football team has won the South Asian Football Federation Cup several times. India has hosted the 1951 and the 1982 Asian Games, the Davis Cup, the 1987 Cricket World Cup, the Asia Cup and will co-host the 2011 Cricket World Cup. Chess, commonly held to have originated in India, is also gaining popularity with the rise in the number of Indian Grandmasters.[130] Traditional sports include kabaddi, kho kho, and gilli-danda, which are played nationwide. India is also home to the ancient martial arts, Kalarippayattu and Varma Kalai. The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and the Arjuna Award are India's highest civilian sports awards.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ "State Emblem -Inscription". National Informatics Centre(NIC). Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  2. ^ "National Anthem - Know India portal". National Informatics Centre(NIC). 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-31.
  3. ^ "National Song - Know India portal". National Informatics Centre(NIC). 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-30.
  4. ^ "CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY OF INDIA — VOLUME XII". Constituent Assembly of India: Debates. parliamentofindia.nic.in, National Informatics Centre. 1950-01-24. Retrieved 2007-06-29. The composition consisting of the words and music known as Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of India, subject to such alterations in the words as the Government may authorise as occasion arises; and the song Vande Mataram, which has played a historic part in the struggle for Indian freedom, shall be honoured equally with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status with it. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ^ "The Union: Official Language". Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. National Informatics Centre(NIC). 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-24.
  6. ^ "Notification No. 2/8/60-O.L., dated 27 April, 1960". Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. National Informatics Centre(NIC). {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ Official Languages Resolution, 1968, para. 2.
  8. ^ a b "India at a Glance". Know India Portal. National Informatics Centre(NIC). Retrieved 2007-12-07.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g "CIA Factbook: India". CIA Factbook. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
  10. ^ a b c d "India". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
  11. ^ a b "Field Listing - Distribution of family income - Gini index". The World Factbook. CIA. 15 May, 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-06. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ^ "Total Area of India" (PDF). Country Studies, India. Library of Congress– Federal Research Division. December 2004. Retrieved 2007-09-03. The country's exact size is subject to debate because some borders are disputed. The Indian government lists the total area as 3,287,260 square kilometers and the total land area as 3,060,500 square kilometers; the United Nations lists the total area as 3,287,263 square kilometers and total land area as 2,973,190 square kilometers.
  13. ^ a b c Kumar, V. Sanil (2006). "Coastal processes along the Indian coastline" (PDF). Current Science. 91 (4): pp. 530-536. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ Footnote: The Government of India also considers Afghanistan to be a bordering country. This is because it considers the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir to be a part of India including the portion bordering Afghanistan. A ceasefire sponsored by the United Nations in 1948 froze the positions of Indian and Pakistani-held territory. As a consequence, the region bordering Afghanistan is in Pakistan-administered Kashmir.
  15. ^ Oldenburg, Phillip. 2007. "India: History," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007© 1997-2007 Microsoft Corporation.
  16. ^ a b "India is the second fastest growing economy". Economic Research Service (ERS). United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved 2007-08-05.
  17. ^ a b Poverty estimates for 2004-05, Planning commission, Government of India, March 2007. Accessed: August 25, 2007
  18. ^ "India", Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 2100a.d. Oxford University Press
  19. ^ Basham, A. L. (2000). The Wonder That Was India. South Asia Books. ISBN 0283992573.
  20. ^ "Official name of the Union". Courts Informatics Division, National Informatics Centre, Ministry of Comm. and Information Tech. Retrieved 2007-08-08. Name and territory of the Union- India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.
  21. ^ "Hindustan". Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-18.
  22. ^ "Introduction to the Ancient Indus Valley". Harappa. 1996. Retrieved 2007-06-18.
  23. ^ Krishna Reddy (2003). Indian History. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. pp. p. A107. ISBN 0070483698. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  24. ^ Jona Lendering. "Maurya dynasty". Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  25. ^ "Gupta period has been described as the Golden Age of Indian history". National Informatics Centre (NIC). Retrieved 2007-10-03. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  26. ^ Heitzman, James. (2007). "Gupta Dynasty," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007
  27. ^ "The Mughal Legacy".
  28. ^ "The Mughal World : Life in India's Last Golden Age".
  29. ^ "History : Indian Freedom Struggle (1857-1947)". National Informatics Centre (NIC). Retrieved 2007-10-03. And by 1856, the British conquest and its authority were firmly established.
  30. ^ Concise Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersley Limited. 1997. pp. p. 455. ISBN 0-7513-5911-4. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  31. ^ Concise Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersley Limited. 1997. pp. p. 322. ISBN 0-7513-5911-4. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  32. ^ a b "India Profile". Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI). 2003. Retrieved 2007-06-20.
  33. ^ a b Montek Singh Ahluwalia (2002). "Economic Reforms in India since 1991: Has Gradualism Worked?" (MS Word). Journal of Economic Perspectives. Retrieved 2007-06-13. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  34. ^ Pylee, Moolamattom Varkey (2004). "The Longest Constitutional Document". Constitutional Government in India (2nd edition ed.). S. Chand. p. 4. ISBN 8121922038. Retrieved 2007-10-31. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  35. ^ Dutt, Sagarika (1998). "Identities and the Indian state: An overview". Third World Quarterly. 19 (3): 411–434. doi:10.1080/01436599814325. at p. 421
  36. ^ Wheare, K.C. (1964). Federal Government (4th edition ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 28. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  37. ^ Echeverri-Gent, John (2002), "Politics in India's Decentred Polity", in Ayres, Alyssa; Oldenburg, Philip (eds.), Quickening the Pace of Change, India Briefing, London: M.E. Sharpe, pp. 19–53, ISBN 076560812X at pp. 19-20; Sinha, Aseema (2004), "The Changing Political Economy of Federalism in India", India Review, 3 (1): 25–63, doi:10.1080/14736480490443085 at pp 25-33
  38. ^ a b c Sharma, Ram (1950). "Cabinet Government in India". Parliamentary Affairs. 4 (1): 116–126.
  39. ^ "Election of President". The Constitution Of India. Constitution Society. Retrieved 2007-09-02. The President shall be elected by the members of an electoral college
  40. ^ Gledhill, Alan (1964). The Republic of India: The Development of Its Laws and Constitution (2nd edition ed.). Stevens and Sons. p. 112. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  41. ^ "Tenure of President's office". The Constitution Of India. Constitution Society. Retrieved 2007-09-02. The President shall hold office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office
  42. ^ "Appointment of Prime Minister and Council of Ministers". The Constitution Of India. Constitution Society. Retrieved 2007-09-02. The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister.
  43. ^ Matthew, K.M. Manorama Yearbook 2003. Malayala Manorama. pp. pg 524. ISBN 8190046187. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  44. ^ Gledhill, Alan (1964). The Republic of India: The Development of Its Laws and Constitution (2nd edition ed.). Stevens and Sons. p. 127. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  45. ^ a b c d "Our Parliament A brief description of the Indian Parliament". www.parliamentofindia.gov.in. Retrieved 2007-06-16.
  46. ^ a b Neuborne, Burt (2003). "The Supreme Court of India". International Journal of Constitutional Law. 1 (1): 476–510. doi:10.1093/icon/1.3.476. at p. 478.
  47. ^ Supreme Court of India. "Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court". National Informatics Centre. Retrieved 2007-10-21.
  48. ^ Sripati, Vuayashri (1998). "Toward Fifty Years of Constitutionalism and Fundamental Rights in India: Looking Back to See Ahead (1950-2000)". American University International Law Review. 14 (2): 413–496. at pp. 423-424
  49. ^ Pylee, Moolamattom Varkey (2004). "The Union Judiciary: The Supreme Court". Constitutional Government in India (2nd edition ed.). S. Chand. p. 314. ISBN 8121922038. Retrieved 2007-11-02. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  50. ^ "Country profile: India". BBC. 9 January 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-21.
  51. ^ "World's Largest Democracy to Reach One Billion Persons on Independence Day". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. United Nations: Population Division. Retrieved 2007-12-06.
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  53. ^ Bhambhri, Chandra Prakash (1992). Politics in India 1991-92. Shipra Publications. pp. 118, 143. ISBN 978-8185402178.
  54. ^ "Narasimha Rao passes away". The Hindu. Retrieved 2008-11-02.
  55. ^ Patrick Dunleavy, Rekha Diwakar, Christopher Dunleavy. "The effective space of party competition" (PDF). London School of Economics and Political Science. Retrieved 2007-10-01.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  56. ^ Hermann, Kulke (2004). A History of India. Routledge. p. 384. ISBN 978-0415329194. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  57. ^ "Significance of the Contribution of India to the Struggle Against Apartheid1 by M. Moolla".
  58. ^ "History of Non Aligned Movement". Retrieved 2007-08-23.
  59. ^ Martin Gilbert (2002). A History of the Twentieth Century. pp. 486–87. ISBN 006050594X. Retrieved 2008-11-03.
  60. ^ "India's Expanding Role in Asia: Adapting to Rising Power Status".
  61. ^ "India's negotiation positions at the WTO" (PDF).
  62. ^ "India and the United Nations". Retrieved 2006-04-22.
  63. ^ Brig. Vijai K. Nair (Indian Army). "No More Ambiguity: India's Nuclear Policy" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-06-07.
  64. ^ Times of India (October 11, 2008), India, US seal 123 Agreement, Times of India
  65. ^ "States Reorganisation Act, 1956". Constitution of India. Commonwealth Legal Information Institute. Retrieved 2007-10-31.; See also: Political integration of India
  66. ^ "Districts of India". Government of India. National Informatics Centre (NIC). Retrieved 2007-11-25.
  67. ^ a b c Ali, Jason R. (2005). "Greater India". Earth-Science Reviews. 72 (3–4): pp. 170-173. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.07.005. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |Ref= ignored (|ref= suggested) (help)
  68. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 7
  69. ^ Prakash, B. (2000). "Holocene tectonic movements and stress field in the western Gangetic plains" (PDF). Current Science. 79 (4): pp. 438-449. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  70. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 11
  71. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 8
  72. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, pp. 9–10
  73. ^ India's northernmost point is the region of the disputed Siachen Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir; however, the Government of India regards the entire region of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir (including the Northern Areas currently administered by Pakistan) to be its territory, and therefore assigns the longitude 37° 6' to its northernmost point.
  74. ^ (Government of India 2007, p. 1)
  75. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 15
  76. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 16
  77. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 17
  78. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 12
  79. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 13
  80. ^ a b Chang 1967, pp. 391–394
  81. ^ Posey 1994, p. 118
  82. ^ Wolpert 2003, p. 4
  83. ^ Heitzman & Worden 1996, p. 97
  84. ^ a b Dr S.K.Puri. "Biodiversity Profile of India (Text Only)". Retrieved 2007-06-20.
  85. ^ Botanical Survey of India. 1983. Flora and Vegetation of India — An Outline. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. p. 24.
  86. ^ Valmik Thapar, Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent, 1997. ISBN 978-0520214705
  87. ^ a b Tritsch, M.E. 2001. Wildlife of India Harper Collins, London. 192 pages. ISBN 0-00-711062-6
  88. ^ K. Praveen Karanth. (2006). Out-of-India Gondwanan origin of some tropical Asian biota
  89. ^ Groombridge, B. (ed). 1993. The 1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. lvi + 286 pp.
  90. ^ "The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972". Helplinelaw.com. 2000. Retrieved 2007-06-16.
  91. ^ "The Forest Conservation Act, 1980". AdvocateKhoj.com. 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-29.
  92. ^ "Biosphere Reserves of India". Retrieved 2007-06-17.
  93. ^ "The List of Wetlands of International Importance" (PDF). The Secretariat of the Convention of on Wetlands. June 4, 2007. pp. p. 18. Retrieved 2007-06-20. {{cite web}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  94. ^ "Weekly Statistical Supplement". Reserve Bank of India. June 1, 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-11.
  95. ^ ""Revenue surge boosts fiscal health"". Business Standard. Retrieved 2006-12-28.
  96. ^ Mohan, T.T.Ram. "Privatization in India: Issues and Evidence" (PDF). Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad. Retrieved 2007-08-03. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  97. ^ "Quarterly estimates of gross domestic product, 2006-07". Government of India. Retrieved 2007-05-31.
  98. ^ "The Puzzle of India's Growth". 2006-06-26. Retrieved 2008-09-15. {{cite web}}: Text "workThe Telegraph" ignored (help)
  99. ^ "EIA Country Profiles: India". 2008-06-16. Retrieved 2008-06-25.
  100. ^ ""Inclusive Growth and Service delivery: Building on India's Success"" (PDF). World Bank. 2006. Retrieved 2007-04-28.
  101. ^ "In Pictures – Middle Class, or Upper Class? ". India Together. Civil Society Information Exchange. August 2003
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  105. ^ Mallikarjun, B. (Nov., 2004), Fifty Years of Language Planning for Modern Hindi–The Official Language of India, Language in India, Volume 4, Number 11. ISSN 1930-2940.
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  107. ^ Template:Harvard reference. Quote: "Tamil ... It is therefore one of India's two classical languages, alongside the more widely known Indo-Aryan language Sanskrit." 2. Template:Harvard reference Quote: "Tamil, one of the two classical languages of India, is a Dravidian language spoken today by 50 million Indians, ..."
  108. ^ "Declaration of Telugu and Kannada as classical languages". Press Information Bureau. Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Government of India. Retrieved 2008-11-19.
  109. ^ Matthew, K.M. (2006). Manorama Yearbook 2003. Malayala Manorama. pp. pg 524. ISBN 81-89004-07-7. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  110. ^ "Census of India 2001, Data on Religion". Census of India. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  111. ^ "Tribes: Introduction". National Informatics Centre. Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  112. ^ "Kerala's literacy rate". kerala.gov.in. Government of Kerala. Retrieved 2007-12-13.
  113. ^ Census Statistics of Bihar: Literacy Rates "Literacy rate of Bihar". Government of Bihar. Retrieved 2007-12-13. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  114. ^ "Taj Mahal". World Heritage List. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. The World Heritage List includes 851 properties forming part of the cultural and natural heritage which the World Heritage Committee considers as having outstanding universal value. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  115. ^ Das, N.K. (2006). "Cultural Diversity, Religious Syncretism and People of India: An Anthropological Interpretation". Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology. 3 (2nd). ISSN 1819-8465. Retrieved 2007-09-27. The pan-Indian, civilizational dimension of cultural pluralism and syncretism encompasses ethnic diversity and admixture, linguistic heterogeneity as well as fusion, and variations as well as synthesis in customs, behavioural patterns, beliefs and rituals. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  116. ^ Baidyanath, Saraswati (2006). "Cultural Pluralism, National Identity and Development". Interface of Cultural Identity Development (1stEdition ed.). pp. xxi+290pp. ISBN 81-246-0054-6. Retrieved 2007-06-08.
  117. ^ 1. "South Asian arts: Techniques and Types of Classical Dance" From: Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12 Oct. 2007. 2. Sangeet Natak Academi (National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama, New Delhi, India). 2007. Dance Programmes. 3. Kothari, Sunil. 2007. Sattriya dance of the celibate monks of Assam, India. Royal Holloway College, University of London.
  118. ^ Lal 1998
  119. ^ (Karanth 1997, p. 26). Quote: "The Yakṣagāna folk-theatre is no isolated theatrical form in India. We have a number of such theatrical traditions all around Karnataka... In far off Assam we have similar plays going on by the name of Ankia Nat, in neighouring Bengal we have the very popular Jatra plays. Maharashtra has Tamasa. (p. 26)
  120. ^ "Country profile: India". BBC. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  121. ^ Dissanayake & Gokulsing 2004
  122. ^ Rajadhyaksha & Willemen (editors) 1999
  123. ^ MacDonell 2004, p. 1-40
  124. ^ Johnson 1998, MacDonell 2004, p. 1-40, and Kalidasa & Johnson (editor) 2001
  125. ^ 1. Encyclopaedia Britannica (2008), "Tamil Literature." Quote: "Apart from literature written in classical (Indo-Aryan) Sanskrit, Tamil is the oldest literature in India. Some inscriptions on stone have been dated to the 3rd century BC, but Tamil literature proper begins around the 1st century AD. Much early poetry was religious or epic; an exception was the secular court poetry written by members of the sangam, or literary academy (see Sangam literature)." 2. Ramanujan 1985, p. ix-x Quote: "These poems are 'classical,' i.e. early, ancient; they are also 'classics,' i.e. works that have stood the test of time, the founding works of a whole tradition. Not to know them is not to know a unique and major poetic achievement of Indian civilization. Early classical Tamil literature (c. 100 BC–AD 250) consists of the Eight Anthologies (Eţţuttokai), the Ten Long Poems (Pattuppāţţu), and a grammar called the Tolkāppiyam or the 'Old Composition.' ... The literature of classical Tamil later came to be known as Cankam (pronounced Sangam) literature. (pp. ix-x)"
  126. ^ Delphine, Roger, "The History and Culture of Food in Asia", in Kiple & Kriemhild 2000, p. 1140-1151
  127. ^ Achaya 1994, Achaya 1997
  128. ^ "18 Popular India Festivals". Retrieved 2007-12-23.
  129. ^ Majumdar & Bandyopadhyay 2006, p. 1-5
  130. ^ "Anand crowned World champion". Rediff. 10-29-2008. Retrieved 2008-10-29. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

References

History
Geography
  • Dikshit, K.R. (2007). "India: The Land". Encyclopædia Britannica. pp. pp. 1-29. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |pages= has extra text (help); External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Government of India (2007). India Yearbook 2007. Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting. ISBN 81-230-1423-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |Ref= ignored (|ref= suggested) (help)
  • Heitzman, J. (1996). India: A Country Study. Library of Congress (Area Handbook Series). ISBN 0-8444-0833-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Posey, C.A (1994). The Living Earth Book of Wind and Weather. Reader's Digest Association. ISBN 0-8957-7625-1.
Flora and fauna
Culture

21°N 78°E / 21°N 78°E / 21; 78

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