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Kebab

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For other uses, see Kebab (disambiguation).
Kebab
Jujeh kabab, roast chicken kebab in Iranian cuisine
CourseMain course
Place of originMiddle East
Serving temperatureHot
Main ingredientsMeat

Kebab (also American kabob) is a term in English for several types of food. The word originated in Middle East and is also common in other languages worldwide, with numerous spellings and variants. It has different definitions in different varieties of English, and in different cultures.

In contemporary American and British English, a kebab is a common dish, consisting of a skewer with small pieces of meat or seafood, together with vegetables such as onions, tomatoes, and bell peppers. Also known as shish kebab or sometimes shashlik,[1][2][3] kebabs are customarily prepared in homes and restaurants, and are usually cooked on a grill or barbeque. The word kebab may also be used as a general term in English to describe any similar-looking skewered food, such as brochette, satay, souvlaki, yakitori, or numerous small chunks of any type of food served on a stick. This is different from its use in the Middle East, where shish (Turkish: şiş) is the word for skewer, while kebab comes from the Persian word for grilling.[4]

In the UK, Ireland, Australia, and some other English-speaking countries outside of North America, the word kebab is also used generally to mean döner kebab,[2] or the related shawarma or gyros, or sandwiches made with them, available from kebab shops as fast food and take-away meals. Many layers of meat are stacked onto a large vertical rotating spit; the outer surface is gradually cooked and sliced off, and typically served as a sandwich in pita or flatbread with salad and sauces. In Germany, the highly popular sandwich, introduced by Turkish immigrants, is called a döner, though Arab shops serve shawarma.[5] In other countries in Europe and worldwide, the name used depends on the dish and on local customs.

In Indian English[6] and in the languages and cuisine of the Middle East and the Muslim world, kebab is a broad term covering a wide variety of grilled meat dishes in addition to the shish kebab and döner kebab familiar in the West.[4] Although often cooked on a skewer, many types of kebab are not.[7] Kebab dishes can consist of cut up or ground meat or seafood, sometimes with vegetables; cooked on a skewer over a fire, or like a hamburger on a grill, baked in a pan in an oven, or as a stew; and served with various accompaniments according to each recipe.

The traditional meat for kebab is lamb, but depending on local tastes and religious prohibitions, other meats may include beef, goat, chicken, fish, or, more rarely, pork.

Etymology and history

The practice of cooking meat on a stick or skewer originates in prehistorical times, possibly as long as a million years ago, when early humans began cooking with fire.[8] Dishes prepared in a similar way to kebab, with various cultural origins, include anticucho, espetada, satay, souvlaki, yakitori, and many others. Excavations in Santorini, Greece, unearthed stone sets of barbecue for skewers used before the 17th century BC. In each pair of the supports, the receptions for the spits are found in absolute equivalence, while the line of small openings in the base formed a mechanism to supply the coals with oxygen so that they remained alight during its use.[9] Mycenaean Greeks used portable tray as grills. These trays were rectangular ceramic pans that sat underneath skewers of meat but it is not clear whether these trays would have been placed directly over a fire or if the pans would have held hot coals like a portable barbecue pit.[10][11] Homer in Ilad (1.465) mentions pieces of meat roasted on spits (οβελός).[12][13][14][15] In Classical Greece, a small spit or skewer was known as ὀβελίσκος (obeliskos),[16][17] and Aristophanes mentions such skewers being used to roast thrushes.[18]

According to Sevan Nişanyan, an etymologist of the Turkish language, the word kebab is derived from the Persian word "kabab" meaning "fry". The word was first mentioned in a Turkish script of Kyssa-i Yusuf in 1377, which is the oldest known source where kebab is mentioned as a food. However, he emphasizes that the word has the equivalent meaning of "frying/burning" with "kabābu" in the old Akkadian language, and "kbabā/כבבא" in Syriac language.[19]

Tradition has it that the dish was invented by medieval soldiers who used their swords to grill meat over open-field fires.[20][21] Persian kebab was served in the royal houses during various Islamic Empires and even commoners would enjoy it for breakfast with naan or pita.[22][23]

National varieties

In Afghanistan

The Afghan variant of the kebab is the "kabob" (Pashto/Dari: کباب).

In Armenia

Main article: Khorovats

Kebabs in Armenia are prepared of ground meat spiced with pepper, parsley and other herbs and roasted on skewers.

In Azerbaijan

Tika kabab and lyula kabab from mutton, as served in Qəçrəş, Quba Rayon, north-eastern Azerbaijan

The main varieties include tika kabab, lyula kabab (doyma kabab in some places), tas kababy and tava kabab. The meat for tika kabab is sometimes prepared in basdirma (an onion gravy and thyme) and then goes onto the ramrods. It may be served, wrapped in lavash, with sauce-like pomegranate addon (narsharab) and other condiments.

In Bulgaria

In Bulgaria, the word кебап (kebap) is a generic term for meat stews with few or no vegetables. The döner kebab is widespread as fast food and is called дюнер (dyuner). Shish kebap / shashlik is also common, and is called шишче (shishche - "small skewer").[citation needed]

In China

Chuan-style lamb kebab sticks sold by a street vendor
Main article: chuanr

Chuanr (Chinese: 串; pinyin: chuàn), often referred to as "chua'r" in Pekingese and throughout the North, or kawap (كاۋاپ) in Uyghur, is a variation of kebab originating from the Uyghurs in the Western province of Xinjiang and a popular dish in Chinese Islamic cuisine. The dish has since spread across the rest of the country and become a popular street food.

Although the most traditional form of chuanr uses lamb or mutton, other types of meat, such as chicken, beef, pork, and seafood, may be used as well. Small pieces of meat are skewered and either roasted or deep-fried. Common spices and condiments include cumin called "ziran", pepper, sesame, and sesame oil.

In Greece

Gyros sandwiches in Greece, with meat, onions, tomato, french fries, and tzatziki sauce rolled into a pita
Main articles: Gyro (food) and Souvlaki

While the history of street foods in Greece goes back to ancient times, the iconic Greek gyros and souvlaki as it is known today arose only following the Second World War. Introduced to Athens in the 1950s by immigrants from Turkey and the Middle East, gyros was originally known simply as döner kebab. It is typically served as a sandwich rolled in pita bread, or on a plate, with french fries and various salads and sauces such as tzatziki. Later in the 1960s, vendors also began selling dishes in the same style made with souvlaki, which resembles Turkish shish kebab, but is usually made with pork.[24]

Around the same time, the Greek name gyros replaced döner kebab, and the dish became popular in New York City and various parts of the world.[25]

In contrast to other areas of Greece, in Athens, both types of sandwich may be called souvlaki, with the skewered meat being called kalamaki.

Although gyros is unquestionably of Middle Eastern origin, the issue of whether modern-day souvlaki came to Greece via Turkish cuisine, and should be considered a Greek styling of shish kebab, or is a contemporary revival of Greek tradition dating as far back as 17th century BC Minoan civilization,[26] is a topic of sometimes heated debate, at least between Greeks and Turks.[clarification needed][27] While English speakers may refer to souvlaki skewers as kebabs,[28] they are not properly called that in Greece.

In India

Chicken kebabs from Kolkata, India

Kebabs in India trace their origin to the Central Asian influence of the Mughlai cuisine. Kebabs in India are more or less similar to most other kebab preparations along with their distinct taste, which can be credited to the use of Indian spices.

All the varieties such as sheesh, doner (known as shawarma), shammi, tikka, and other forms of roasted and grilled meats are savoured in India.[29] Some popular kebabs are:

  • Kakori kebab
  • Shami kebab
  • Kalmi kebab
  • Kacche gosht ke chapli kebab
  • Tunde ke kabab
  • Sambhali kebab
  • Galawati
  • Boti kebab
  • Seekh Kebab
  • Kalmi kebab
  • Reshmi kebab
  • Lasoni kebab
  • Chicken malai kebab
  • Tikka kebab
  • Tangdi kebab (tangdi meaning "leg of the chicken")
  • Kaleji kebab
  • Hariali chicken kebab
  • Burrah kebab
  • Soovar ki saanth (Pork belly kebabs from Rajasthan)
  • Rajpooti soolah (Game meat-wild boar, deer & partridge barbecue kebabs made with a special "Kachari" (wild melon) sauce by Rajputs in Rajasthan)

In Iran

Kabab chenjeh In Khorramabad
Main article: Chelow kabab

Kabab (Persian: کباب), of which there are several distinct Persian varieties, is a national dish of Iran. Kebab may be served with either steamed, saffroned basmati or Persian rice (chelow kebab; Persian: چلو کباب) or with the various types of bread that are the most commonly eaten in Iran, such as Lavash. Iran has more than seven types of kebab, which form a significant part of the Iranian diet.[citation needed]

It is served with the basic Iranian meal accompaniments, in addition to grilled tomatoes on the side of the rice and butter on top of the rice. It is an old northern tradition (probably originating in Tehran) that a raw egg yolk should be placed on top of the rice as well, though this is strictly optional, and most restaurants will not serve the rice this way unless it is specifically requested. "Somagh", powdered sumac, is also made available and its use varies based on tastes to a small dash on the rice or a heavy sprinkling on both rice and meat, particularly when used with red (beef/veal/lamb) meat.

At Persian restaurants, the combination of one kabab barg and one kabab koobideh is typically called Soltani, meaning "sultan's feast". The traditional beverage of choice to accompany kebab is doogh, a sour yogurt drink with mint and salt.

In the old bazaar tradition, the rice (which is covered with a tin lid) and accompaniments are served first, immediately followed by the kebabs, which are brought to the table by the waiter, who holds several skewers in his left hand, and a piece of flat bread (typically nan-e lavash) in his right. A skewer is placed directly on the rice and while holding the kebab down on the rice with the bread, the skewer is quickly pulled out. With the two most common kebabs, barg and koobideh, two skewers are always served. In general, bazaar kebab restaurants only serve these two varieties, though there are exceptions.

Kabab koobideh

Main article: Kabab koobideh

Kabab koobideh (Persian: کباب کوبیده) or kūbide (Persian: کوبیده) is an Iranian minced meat kabab which is made from ground lamb, beef, or chicken, often mixed with parsley and chopped onions.

Kabab Koobideh contains: ground meat, onion, salt, pepper, turmeric, and seasoning. These ingredients are mixed together until the mixture becomes smooth and sticky. One egg is added to help the mix stick together. The mixture is then pressed around a skewer. Koobideh Kabab is typically 7 to-[convert: unknown unit] long.

Kabab barg

Main article: Kabab barg

Kabāb-e barg (Persian: کباب برگ) is a Persian style barbecued lamb, chicken or beef kebab dish. The main ingredients of Kabab Barg – a short form of this name – are fillets of beef tenderloin, lamb shank or chicken breast, onions and olive oil.

Jujeh kabab, an Iranian chicken kebab

Marinade is prepared by the mixture of half a cup of olive oil, three onions, garlic, half teaspoon saffron, salt and black pepper. One kilogram of lamb is cut into 1 cm thick and 4–5 cm long pieces. It should be marinated overnight in refrigerator, and the container should be covered. The next day, the lamb is threaded on long, thin metal skewers. It is brushed with marinade and is barbecued for 5–10 minutes on each side. Kabab-e Barg

Jujeh kabab

Main article: Jujeh kabab

Jūje-kabāb (Persian: جوجه‌کباب) consists of pieces of chicken first marinated in minced onion and lemon juice with saffron then grilled over a fire. It is sometimes served with grilled tomato and pepper. Jujeh kabab is one of the most popular Persian dishes.

Kabab Bakhtiari

Kabab Bakhtiari is a combination of Jujeh kabab (chicken kabab) and Kabab barg (beef or lamb meat) in a decussate form and its name comes from the Bakhtiyari people.[citation needed]

In the Levant and Iraq

Shawarma and other varieties of kebabs can be found at most restaurants representing this region. The preparation of Shawarma consists of chicken, turkey, beef, veal, or mixed meats being placed on a spit (commonly a vertical spit in restaurants), and being grilled for as long as a day. Shavings are cut off the block of meat for serving, and the remainder of the block of meat is kept heated on the rotating spit. Although it can be served in shavings on a plate (generally with accompaniments), shawarma also refers to a pita bread sandwich or wrap made with shawarma meat.

Lebanese shish kebab is called lahem meshwi, while in Iraq it is known as tikka.[4]

Mizrahi Jews brought various types of kebab from their native Middle Eastern lands to Israel, where they are an essential part of the Israeli cuisine. Among the most popular are a type of köfte, skewers of spiced ground meat, often simply called kebab.[4]

In Malaysia

Kebabs in Malaysia are adapted from the Turkish döner kebab. They are generally sold at pasar malam (night markets) and in shopping mall food courts.

Normally, the meat, after being cut from the spit, is pan-fried with onions and hot sauce then placed into a pita bread pocket before being filled with condiments such as tomatoes, mayonnaise, onion, and lettuce.[citation needed]

In Nepal

Sekuwa Kebab in Nepalese restaurant.

In Nepal it is a popular dish in Nepalese cuisine as well as Newa cuisine and known as Sekuwa. It is a meat roasted in a natural wood/log fire in a real traditional Nepalese country style. At first while the meat is still in its raw stage is mixed with homemade natural herbs and spices and other necessary ingredients. Sekuwa could be of pork, lamb, goat or chicken, or a mixture. Sekuwa is very popular in Nepal, especially in the Eastern Nepal and Kathmandu. Tarahara, a small town in Sunsari District of Koshi State in the Eastern Nepal could be called as the sekuwa capital of Nepal.[citation needed]

In Norway

Common Norwegian fast-food kebab variety, served in a pita bread with garlic dressing and chili sauce

The Norwegian Food Safety Authority in 2007 issued a warning about cheap kebabs. According to Verdens Gang they estimated that more than 80% of kebab shops in Oslo use illegally produced meat. It was warned that such meat could be dangerous to eat because it could contain salmonella or other bacteria, and that it could be connected to organised crime.[30]

In Pakistan

Pakistani-style seekh kebabs being grilled on a skewer

Kebabs in Pakistan trace their origin to the influence of the Mughlai cuisine in South Asia. Pakistani cuisine is rich with different kebabs. Meat including beef, chicken, lamb and fish is used in kebabs. Some popular kebabs are:

In Turkey

Şiş kebap with "şehriyeli pilav" (orzo pilaf), onions with sumac, a grilled pepper, a slice of tomato (also grilled) and rucula leaves.
Cağ kebabı
İskender kebab served in Bursa, Turkey
Slicing döner kebab off a rotating vertical spit
Adana kebab.
See also: Turkish cuisine

Shish

Main article: Şiş kebap

Shish kebab is a dish consisting of small cubes of meat or fish threaded on a skewer and grilled. Şiş, pronounced [ʃiʃ], is a Turkish word meaning "sword" or "skewer".[31][32]

In the US, the word "kebab" usually refers to shish kebab.[33][34]

In Turkey, shish kebab does not normally contain vegetables, though they may be cooked on a separate skewer.[35] It can be prepared with lamb, beef, chicken, or fish, but pork is not used. In American and other Western shish kebab recipes, any kind of meat may be used; cubes of vegetables are often threaded on the spit as well. Typical vegetables include tomato, bell pepper, onions, and mushrooms.

Cağ

Main article: Cağ kebabı

Before taking its modern form, as mentioned in Ottoman travel books of the 18th century,[36][37] the doner used to be a horizontal stack of meat rather than vertical, probably sharing common ancestors with the Cağ Kebabı of the Eastern Turkish province of Erzurum.

In his family biography, İskender Efendi of 19th century Bursa writes that "he and his grandfather had the idea of roasting the lamb vertically rather than horizontally, and invented for that purpose a vertical mangal".

Since then, Hacı İskender is known as the inventor of Turkish döner kebab.[38][39] With time, the meat took a different marinade, got leaner, and eventually took its modern shape.[37]

Döner

Main article: Doner kebab

Döner kebab, literally "rotating kebab" in Turkish, is sliced lamb, beef, or chicken, slowly roasted on a vertical rotating spit. The Middle Eastern shawarma, Mexican tacos al pastor, and Greek gyros are all derived from the Turkish döner kebab, which was invented in Bursa in the 19th century by a cook named Hacı İskender.[40]

The German-style döner kebab was supposedly invented by a Turkish immigrant in Berlin in the 1970s and became a popular German take-away food during the 1990s. It is almost exclusively sold by Turks and considered a Turkish specialty in Germany.[41]

Health concerns about döner kebab, including unacceptable salt and fat levels and improper labeling of meat used, are repeatedly reported in UK media.[42][43][44]

The Greek gyro, along with the similar Arab shawarma and Mexican tacos al pastor, are derived from this dish.[45]

Adana

Main article: Adana kebabı

Adana kebabı (or kıyma kebabı) is a long, hand-minced meat kebab mounted on a wide iron skewer and grilled over charcoal. It is generally "hot" or piquant. The traditional Adana Kebab is made using lamb, with a high fatty content cooked over hot coals. Only three ingredients are used in a proper Adana Kebab, minced lamb, red capsicum (pepper) and salt.

Steam kebab

Steam kebab (Turkish: Buğu kebabı) is a Turkish stew which is cooked in a pan or an earthenware casserole. The casserole's lid is sealed in order to cook the meat in its own juices. The dish is prepared with pearl onions, garlic, thyme, and other spices. In Tekirdağ, it is served with cumin; in Izmir, it is served with mastic.[46]

Testi kebab

A dish from Central Anatolia and the Mid-Western Black Sea region, consisting of a mixture of meat and vegetables cooked in a clay pot or jug over fire (testi means jug in Turkish). The pot is sealed with bread dough or foil and is broken when serving.[47][48]

Other variants

For a list of kebab variants, see List of kebabs.

Kebab kenjeh

Kebab Kenjeh (کنجه کباب) is a meat, specifically and traditionally lamb, dish in the Middle East. Originating in Iran, kebab kenjeh is now found worldwide.[citation needed] The meat is cooked with olive oil, lemon juice, salt, and pepper and served with rice, grilled tomato, and raw onion.

Kebab Halabi

Kebab khashkhash from Aleppo

A kind of kebab served with a spicy tomato sauce and Aleppo pepper, very common in Syria and Lebanon, named after the city of Aleppo (Halab). Kebab Halabi has around 26 variants[49] including:

  • Kebab karaz (cherry kebab in Arabic): meatballs (lamb) along with cherries and cherry paste, pine nuts, sugar and pomegranate molasses. It is considered one of Aleppo's main dishes especially among Armenians.
  • Kebab khashkhash: rolled lamb or beef with chili pepper paste, parsley, garlic and pine nuts.
  • Kebab Hindi: rolled meat with tomato paste, onion, capsicum and pomegranate molasses.
  • Kebab kamayeh: soft meat with truffle pieces, onion and various nuts.
  • Kebab siniyye (tray kebab in Arabic): lean minced lamb in a tray added with chili pepper, onion and tomato.

Kakori

Kakori kebab is a South Asian kebab attributed to the city of Kakori in Uttar Pradesh, India. There is much folklore about this famous kebab that takes its name from a hamlet called Kakori on the outskirts of Lucknow.[50]

One such story says that the kakori kebab was created by the Nawab of Kakori, Syed Mohammad Haider Kazmi, who, stung by the remark of a British officer about the coarse texture of the kebabs served at dinner, ordered his rakabdars (gourmet cooks) to evolve a more refined seekh kebab.[50] After ten days of research, they came up with a kebab so soft and so juicy it won the praise of the very British officer who had scorned the Nawab.[50] The winning formula that his rakabdars came upon included mince obtained from no other part but the raan ki machhli (tendon of the leg of mutton), khoya, white pepper and a mix of powdered spices.[50]

Chapli kebab served in a restaurant in Birmingham, United Kingdom

Chapli

Chapli kebab is a patty made from beef mince, onions, tomatoes, green chilies, coriander seeds, cumin seeds, salt, black pepper, lemon juice or promegranate seeds, eggs, cornstarch and coriander leaves.[51] Chapli kebab is a common dish in Pashtun cuisine and popular in Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern parts of India. The kebab originates from north western Pakistan.[51] Mardan is famous for chapli kabab not only locally but also internationally.[citation needed]

Chapli kebab is prepared flat and round and generally served with naan.[51]

The word Chapli comes from the Pashto word Chaprikh, which means "flat".[51]

Burrah

Burrah kebab is another kebab from Mughlai Cuisine, fairly popular in South Asia. This is usually made of goat or lamb meat, liberally marinated with spices and charcoal grilled. It uses cuts of chops and not other meat cuts

Kalmi

Kalmi Kebab served with onions and cabbage in Delhi, India

Kalmi kebab a popular snack in Indian cuisine. The dish is made by marinating chicken drumsticks and placing them in a tandoor. Various kinds of freshly ground Indian spices are added to the yogurt used for the marination of the chicken. When prepared, the drumsticks are usually garnished with mint leaves and served with onions and Indian bread.

Galouti

Galouti kabab as served in Lucknow, India

The Galouti kebab is a dish from South Asia, made of minced goat, gaur or buffalo meat and green papaya, traditionally used to tenderize the meat. After mixing with herbs and spices, the very finely ground meat is shaped into patties and fried in pure ghee until it is browned.[52] Like Lucknowi biryani and Kakori kebab, it is a hallmark of Awadhi cuisine.[citation needed]

Many leading Indian hotel chains have taken to popularising the Awadhi food tradition, with the Galouti kebab being a pièce de résistance. The home of this kebab is Lucknow. It is most famously had at the almost iconic eatery "Tundey Miyan" at Old Lucknow.

Legend has it that the galawati kebab was created for an aging Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Lucknow who lost his teeth, but not his passion for meat dishes. Galawati means "melt in your mouth" and was perfect for the toothless Nawab who continued savouring this until his last days.[citation needed] The original recipe that brought many a smile on the Nawab's face, albeit toothless, and many a sigh of satisfaction, is supposed to have more than 100 aromatic spices.[citation needed]

Society

In Europe, kebab has become a symbol of immigration from the Muslim world. For example: speaking Norwegian with an Arab accent or with a lot of words and expressions borrowed from the Pakistani, Turkish, Arabic, and Persian languages is sometimes referred to as Kebabnorsk (Kebab Norwegian).[53] In 2009, the Italian city of Lucca banned new ethnic restaurants from opening in its centre, a ruling which had a marked effect on vendors of kebab.[54] Robert Ménard, the mayor of the French city of Béziers, known for his opposition to Islam and immigration, banned new kebab restaurants, claiming that they were threatening French culture.[55]

Similar dishes

Main article: List of kebabs

See also

References

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  3. ^ "Shashlik - definition of shashlik by The Free Dictionary". The Free Dictionary. Retrieved 23 February 2016.
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  37. ^ a b İskenderoğlu, Yavuz (2008). "Yavuz İskenderoğlu-Kebapçı İskender Tarihçesi" (in Turkish). Kebapçı İskender. Retrieved 3 March 2009.
  38. ^ Kenneth F. Kiple, Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas, eds., Cambridge World History of Food, Cambridge, 2000. ISBN 0-521-40216-6. Vol. 2, p. 1147.
  39. ^ İskenderoğlu, Yavuz (2008). "Yavuz İskenderoğlu-Kebapçı İskender Tarihçesi" (in Turkish). "Yüzyıllardır yerdeki ateşe paralel olarak pişirilen kuzuyu, dik mangalda ayağa kaldırma!": Kebapçı İskender. Retrieved 3 March 2009Template:Inconsistent citations {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  40. ^ Kenneth F. Kiple, Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas, eds., Cambridge World History of Food, Cambridge, 2000. ISBN 0-521-40216-6. Vol. 2, p. 1147.
  41. ^ "Doner kebab 'inventor' Kadir Nurman dies in Berlin". BBC. Retrieved 1 November 2013.
  42. ^ [1].
  43. ^ How unhealthy is a doner kebab?, BBC News Magazine, 21 January 2009
  44. ^ UK study reveals 'shocking' kebabs, BBC News, 27 January 2009
  45. ^ Kenneth F. Kiple, Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas, eds., Cambridge World History of Food, Cambridge, 2000. ISBN 0-521-40216-6. Vol. 2, p. 1147
  46. ^ Kebab aux petits oignons, Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism
  47. ^ Testi kebab: a general description. Retrieved on 22 May 2009
  48. ^ Testi kebab: a specialty of Cappadocia. Retrieved on 22 May 2009 (scroll to the bottom of the page)
  49. ^ "Kuwait News Agency (KUNA)". Retrieved 1 November 2014.
  50. ^ a b c d Classic Cooking of Avadh - Google Books. books.google.co.uk. Retrieved 2 January 2010.
  51. ^ a b c d The multicultural cookbook for students - Google Books. Retrieved 2 January 2010.
  52. ^ Kapoor, Sanjeev. "Galouti Kabab". Zee Khana Khazana. Retrieved 15 November 2013.
  53. ^ "Er du oppdatert på kebabnorsk?". Aftenposten (in Norwegian). Retrieved 5 November 2015. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  54. ^ "A Walled City in Tuscany Clings to Its Ancient Menu". The New York Times. 12 March 2009. Retrieved 5 November 2015.
  55. ^ Taylor, Adam (4 November 2015). "French mayor rants against kebabs so critics declare an international kebab festival". The Independent. Retrieved 5 November 2015.

Further reading

  • Batmanglij, Najmieh. New Food of Life: Ancient Persian and Modern Iranian Cooking and Ceremonies by Najmieh Batmanglij. ISBN 0-934211-34-5
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