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Salvia divinorum

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Salvia divinorum
A short green plant with many elliptical shaped leaves of arcuate venation
Vegetative habit of Salvia divinorum
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Lamiales
Family: Lamiaceae
Genus: Salvia
Species:
S. divinorum
Binomial name
Salvia divinorum
Epling & Játiva[1][2]
Native distribution of Salvia divinorum in Southwest Mexico[2]
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Salvia divinorum (Latin: sage of the diviners; also called ska maría pastora, seer's sage, yerba de la pastora, magic mint or simply salvia) is a species of plant in the sage genus Salvia, known for its transient psychoactive properties when its leaves, or extracts made from the leaves, are administered by smoking, chewing, or drinking (as a tea).[3] The leaves contain the potent compound salvinorin A and can induce a dissociative state and hallucinations.[4]

Mazatec shamans have a long and continuous tradition of religious use of S. divinorum to facilitate visionary states of consciousness during spiritual healing sessions.[1] A media panic in the Western world, especially in the United States c. 2007, centered on reports of video sharing of drug use on the internet, legal teenage use of the drug, as well as a teenage suicide in Delaware, despite it being "unclear" what role the drug played in the incident.[5] S. divinorum is legal in some countries, including the U.S. at the federal level;[6] however over half of U.S. states have passed laws criminalizing it.[7]

Its native habitat is cloud forest in the isolated Sierra Mazateca of Oaxaca, Mexico, where it grows in shady, moist locations.[8][9] The plant grows to over a meter high,[1] has hollow square stems like others in the mint family Lamiaceae, large leaves, and occasional white flowers with violet calyxes. Botanists have not determined whether S. divinorum is a cultigen or a hybrid because native plants reproduce vegetatively and rarely produce viable seed.[10][11]

Because the plant has not been well-studied in high-quality clinical research, little is known about its toxicology, adverse effects, or safety over long-term consumption.[3][4] Its chief active psychoactive constituent is a structurally unique diterpenoid called salvinorin A,[4][12][13] a potent κ-opioid agonist.[14] Although not thoroughly assessed, preliminary research indicates S. divinorum may have low toxicity (high LD50).[15][16] Its effects are rapid but short-lived.[3]

Etymology

The genus name, Salvia, was first used by Pliny for a plant that was likely Salvia officinalis (common sage) and is derived from the Latin salvere.[17][18] The specific epithet, divinorum, was given because of the plant's traditional use in divination.[8] It is often loosely translated as "diviner's sage" or "seer's sage".[19] Albert Hofmann, who collected the first plants with Wasson, objected to the new plant being given the name divinorum: "I was not very happy with the name because Salvia divinorum means "Salvia of the ghosts", whereas Salvia divinatorum, the correct name, means "Salvia of the priests"." It is now in the botanical literature under the name Salvia divinorum due to priority rules.[20]

Common names

There are many common names for S. divinorum, including sage of the diviners,[21] ska maría pastora,[22] seer's sage,[19] yerba de la pastora,[23] simply salvia also sally-d and magic mint.[6]

History

Mazatec people performing a ritual dance in Huautla de Jimenez

Salvia divinorum is native to the Sierra Mazateca in Oaxaca, Mexico, where it is still used by the Mazatec, primarily to facilitate shamanic visions in the context of curing or divination. S. divinorum is one of several plant species with hallucinogenic properties that are ritually used by Mazatec shamans. In their rituals, the shamans use only freshly harvested S. divinorum leaves. They see the plant as an incarnation of the Virgin Mary, and begin the ritual with an invocation to Mary, Saint Peter, the Holy Trinity, and other saints.[1] Ritual use traditionally involves being in a quiet place after ingestion of the leaf—the Maztec shamans say that "La Maria (S. divinorum) speaks with a quiet voice."[11]

It is also used in smaller amounts, as a diuretic, and to treat ailments including diarrhea, anemia, headaches, rheumatism, and a semi-magical disease known as panzón de borrego, or a swollen belly (literally, "lamb belly").[13][24]

The history of the plant is not well known, and there has been no definitive answer to the question of its origin. Speculation includes Salvia divinorum being a wild plant native to the area; a cultigen of the Mazatecs; or a cultigen introduced by another indigenous group. Botanists have also not been able to determine whether it is a hybrid or a cultigen.[25]

Academic discovery

Jean Basset Johnson, who studied Mazatec shamanism during the 1930s.

Salvia divinorum was first recorded in print by Jean Basset Johnson in 1939 while he was studying Mazatec shamanism.[26] He later documented its use and reported its effects through personal testimonials of users.[27] It was not until 2002 that Bryan Roth and his team identified the psychoactive mechanism.[14]

Gordon Wasson tentatively postulated that the plant could be the mythological pipiltzintzintli, the "Noble Prince" of the Aztec codices.[22][28] Wasson's speculation has been the subject of further debate amongst ethnobotanists, with some scepticism coming from Leander J. Valdés,[29] and counterpoints more supportive of Wasson's theory from Jonathan Ott.[30]

The identity of another mysterious Aztec entheogen, namely that of poyomatli, has also been suggested as being Salvia divinorum.[31] Here too there are other candidate plants, notably cacahuaxochitl (Quararibea funebris),[32]

Botany

The top of a skinny flowering plant, with dark green oval leaves near the bottom and in the background. In the foreground is a lighter green stem with many light blue calyces
Flowering Salvia divinorum
Flower detail, showing violet calyx and white corolla

Salvia divinorum has large green ovate (often also dentate) leaves,[33] with a yellow undertone that reach 10 to 30 cm (4 to 12 in) long. The leaves have no hairs on either surface, and little or no petiole.[9] The plant grows to well over 1 metre (3 ft) in height,[1] on hollow square stems which tend to break or trail on the ground, with the plant rooting quite readily at the nodes and internodes.[34]

The flowers, which bloom only rarely, grow in whorls on a 30-centimetre (12 in) inflorescence, with about six flowers to each whorl. The 3-centimetre (1+1⁄4 in) flowers are white, curved and covered with hairs, and held in a small violet calyx that is covered in hairs and glands. When it does bloom in its native habitat, it does so from September to May.[34]

Early authors erred in describing the flowers as having blue corollas, based on Epling and Játiva's description. The first plant material they received was dried, so they based the flower color on an erroneous description by Hofmann and Wasson, who didn't realize that their "blue flowers, crowned with a white dome" were in fact violet calyces with unopened white corollas.[1][34][35]

Distribution and habitat

Salvia divinorum is endemic to the Sierra Mazateca in the state of Oaxaca in Mexico, growing in the primary or secondary cloud forest and tropical evergreen forest at elevations from 300 to 1,830 metres (980 to 6,000 ft). Its most common habitat is black soil along stream banks where small trees and bushes provide an environment of low light and high humidity.[34][36]

Reproduction

Salvia divinorum produces few viable seeds even when it does flower—no seeds have ever been observed on plants in the wild. For an unknown reason, pollen fertility is also comparatively reduced. There is no active pollen tube inhibition within the style, but some event or process after the pollen tube reaches the ovary is aberrant. The likeliest explanations are inbreeding depression or hybridity,[11] although the latter was rejected in 2010.[37] All of the Mazatec populations appear to be clonal.[38] The plant's square stems break easily and tend to trail on the ground, rooting easily at the nodes and internodes.[39]

Taxonomy

Salvia divinorum was first documented in 1939; yet, it was many years before botanists could identify the plant due to Mazatec secrecy about the growing sites.[8] Flowers were needed for a definitive identification of the species. In 1962, the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann and ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson traveled throughout the Sierra Mazateca researching Mazatec rituals while looking for specimens of the plant. They were unable to locate live plants. Eventually, the Mazatec provided them some flowering specimens.[26] These specimens were sent to botanists Carl Epling and Carlos D. Játiva, who described and named the plant as Salvia divinorum, in reference to its use in divination and healing by the Mazatec.[8] By 1985, up to fifteen populations of the plant had been located.[34]

Until 2010, there were differing opinions as to whether Salvia divinorum is an interspecific hybrid. The plant's partial sterility was suggestive of a hybrid origin, though no two parent species have been found with an obvious affinity to Salvia divinorum.[9][10][11] One other possibility for the plant's partial sterility is that long-term cultivation and selection have produced an inbred cultigen.[11][nb 1]

In 2010, a molecular phylogenetic approach by DNA sequencing of Salvia divinorum and a number of related species suggested that the species is not a hybrid.[37] One earlier proposed parent was Salvia cyanea (a synonym for Salvia concolor), which Epling and Játiva believed to be closely allied to Salvia divinorum.[36][40][nb 2] The 2010 study demonstrated Salvia divinorum's closest relative to be Salvia venulosa—a rare and endemic Salvia that is native to Colombia, growing in shaded, wooded gullies at 1,500 to 2,000 m (4,900 to 6,600 ft) elevation. It also showed that Salvia divinorum does not belong to the Salvia section Dusenostachys, as believed earlier. The genetic study also indicated that Salvia venulosa was likely misplaced into Salvia section Tubiflorae, and that it may not be related to other Colombian Salvia species, though further tests are needed.[37] A 2013 follow-up analysis of more Salvia species reported the same result.[41]

The origin of Salvia divinorum was still a mystery as of 1993, one of only three plants in the extensive genus Salvia (approximately 900 species) with unknown origins—the other two being Salvia tingitana and Salvia buchananii.[42]

Strains

Three short green plants in a pot filled with soil. There are many oval-shaped green leaves and no flowers.
Three Salvia divinorum plants

There are two commonly cultivated strains which are known to be distinct. One is the strain that was collected in 1962 by ecologist and psychologist Sterling Bunnell (the Bunnell strain), colloquially mis-attributed as the Wasson-Hofmann strain. The other was collected from Huautla de Jiménez in 1991 by anthropologist Bret Blosser (the Blosser or Palatable strain).[43][44] There are other strains that are not as well documented, such as the Luna strain (possibly Bunnell) isolated from a Hawaiian patch of Salvia divinorum clones, featuring unusually serrated and rounded rather than ovate leaves.[45]

Cultivation

Propagation by cuttings

Salvia divinorum is usually propagated through vegetative reproduction.[46] Small cuttings, between 5 and 20 cm (2 and 8 in) long, cut off of the mother plant just below a node, will usually root in plain tap water within two or three weeks.[47][48]

Flowering

Blooms occur when the day length becomes shorter than 12 hours (beginning in mid-October in some places), necessitating the use of shade cloth in urban environments with exposure to light pollution caused by HPS lighting. Both Siebert and hobbyist reports indicate that viable seeds can, on occasion, be produced under cultivation, following hand-pollination or hummingbird pollination.[49]

Chemistry

Further information: Salvinorin A
A chemical structure diagram showing benzene rings and various bonding with oxygen and hydrogen molecules
Salvinorin A

The known active constituent of Salvia divinorum is a trans-neoclerodane diterpenoid known as salvinorin A (chemical formula C23H28O8).[50] This compound is present in the dried plant at about 0.18%.[30]

Salvinorin A is not an alkaloid (meaning it does not contain a basic nitrogen), unlike most known opioid receptor ligands.[51] Salvinorin A is the first documented diterpene hallucinogen.[33]

Similar to many psychoactive herbs, Salvia divinorum synthesizes and excretes its active constituent (salvinorin A) via trichomes, of the peltate-glandular morphology, located just beneath the cuticle (subcuticular) layer.[52][53]

Potency

By mass, salvinorin A "is the most potent naturally occurring hallucinogen."[54] It is active at doses as low as 200 μg.[55][50][54] Synthetic chemicals, such as LSD (active at 20–30 μg doses), can be more potent.[56] Research has shown that salvinorin A is a potent and selective κ-opioid (kappa-opioid) receptor agonist.[14][50] It has been reported that the effects of salvinorin A in mice are blocked by κ-opioid receptor antagonists.[14][57] However, it is an even more potent D2 receptor partial agonist, and it is likely this action plays a significant role in its effects as well.[58] Salvinorin A has no actions at the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor, the principal molecular target responsible for the actions of 'classic' hallucinogens, such as mescaline and LSD, nor is it known to have affinity for any other sites to date.[14]

In experiments, salvinorin A has shown little toxicity. Rodents chronically exposed to levels many times greater than those to which humans expose themselves show no signs of organ damage.[15]

Other terpenoids

Other terpenoids have been isolated from Salvia divinorum, including other salvinorins and related compounds named divinatorins and salvinicins.[59] None of these compounds has shown significant (sub-micromolar) affinity at the κ-opioid receptor, and there is no evidence that they contribute to the plant's psychoactivity.[60][61]

Other pharmaceutical action

Salvinorin A is capable of inhibiting excess intestinal motility (e.g. diarrhea), through a combination of κ-opioid and cannabinoid (mainly CB1 receptor) receptors in inflamed but not normal gut in vivo. The mechanism of action for Salvinorin A on ileal tissue has been described as 'prejunctional', as it was able to modify electrically induced contractions, but not those of exogenous acetylcholine.[62] Results from a study at the University of Iowa indicate that it may have potential as an analgesic and as a therapeutic tool for treating drug addictions.[63][64]

A pharmacologically important aspect of the contraction-reducing (antispasmodic) properties of ingested Salvinorin A on gut tissue is that it is only pharmacologically active on inflamed and not normal tissue, thus reducing possible side-effects.[65]

Ingestion

There are a few ways to consume Salvia divinorum. In traditional Mazatec ritual, shamans use only fresh Salvia divinorum leaves. Modern methods have been developed to more effectively absorb the active principle, salvinorin A. If enough salvinorin A is absorbed, an altered state of consciousness can occur. The duration of experience varies with the method of ingestion and the amount of salvinorin A absorbed.

Traditional methods

Mazatec shamans crush the leaves to extract leaf juices from about 20 to 80 or more fresh leaves (i.e. about 50–200 g or 2–7 oz). They usually mix these juices with water to create an infusion or 'tea' which they drink to induce visions in ritual healing ceremonies.[24]

Chewing and swallowing a large number of fresh leaves is the other Mazatec method.[66][67] Oral consumption of the leaf makes the effects come on more slowly, over a period of 10 to 20 minutes. The experience, from the onset of effects, lasts from about 30 minutes up to one and a half hours.[68]

Doses for chewing vastly exceed doses used for smoking. By calculating the concentrations per leaf ("an average concentration of 2.45 mg per gram" of leaf),[69] the average weight per leaf ("about 50 g" per 20 leaves, or 2.5 g/leaf),[70] and the standard dose for chewing (about 8–28 leaves),[66] the doses can range from about 50 mg to 172 mg.

Modern methods

Modern methods of ingestion include smoking or chewing the leaf, or using a tincture, as described in the following sections.

A pile of brownish-dark green dried leaf pieces, with a ruler for measurement. The pieces are generally round with diameters of 1 to 4 mm. Some pieces are rectangular, about 1 to 3 mm wide and 3 to 8 mm long.
0.5 g. of 25x S. divinorum extract.

Salvia divinorum is becoming more widely known and used in modern culture. The National Survey on Drug Use and Health, an annual US based survey sponsored by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), for 2006 estimated that about 1.8 million persons aged 12 or older had used Salvia divinorum in their lifetime, of which approximately 750,000 had done so in that year.[71] The following year, 2007, saw the annual figure rise from 750,000 to 1 million US users.[72]

Smoking

Dry leaves can be smoked in a pipe, or through the use of a water pipe to cool the smoke.[73] The temperature required to release salvinorin from the plant material is quite high (about 240 °C). A cooler flame will work, but the direct application of a more intense flame, such as that of a torch lighter, is often preferred.[73]

Some find that untreated dry leaf produces unnoticeable or only light effects.[66] Concentrated preparations or extracts which may be smoked in place of untreated leaves, have become widely available. This enhanced (or "fortified") leaf is described by a number followed by an x (e.g. 5x, 10x), the multiplicative factors being generally indicative of the relative amounts of leaf concentrate, though there is no accepted standard for these claims. Other sources may use a system of color codes to form their own standards of potency; for example, "green", "yellow", and "red."

These grades of potency may be roughly indicative of the relative concentration of the active principle, (salvinorin A), but the measure should not be taken as absolute. Overall extract potency will depend on the (naturally varying) strength of the untreated leaf used in preparing the extract, as well as the efficiency of the extraction process itself. Extracts reduce the overall amount of inhalations needed to ingest a given amount of active principle, thus facilitating more powerful experiences.[74]

If salvia is smoked, then the main effects are experienced quickly. The most intense 'peak' is reached within a minute or so and lasts for 1–5 minutes, followed by a gradual tapering off. At 5–10 minutes, less intense yet still noticeable effects typically persist, giving way to a returning sense of the everyday and familiar until back to baseline after about 15 to 20 minutes.[68]

Quid chewing

The traditional method of chewing the leaves has continued in modern use. However, salvinorin A is generally considered to be inactive when orally ingested, as salvinorin A is effectively deactivated by the gastrointestinal system.[75] Therefore, in what's understood to be a modern innovation, the 'quid' of leaves is held in the mouth as long as possible in order to facilitate absorption of the active constituents through the oral mucosa.[36] 'Quid' refers to the fact that at the end of this method the user spits out the leaves rather than swallowing them because ingesting the leaves has no known effect. Chewing consumes more of the plant than smoking, and produces a longer-lasting experience.

Using a tincture

Less commonly, some may ingest salvia in the form of a tincture. This is administered sublingually, usually with the aid of a glass dropper. It may be taken diluted with water just before use, which may slightly reduce the intensity of its effects, but can also serve to lessen or avoid a stinging sensation in the mouth caused by the presence of alcohol. Tinctures vary in potency, and the effects can range from inducing a mild meditative state to bringing about a more intense hallucinatory one.[66]

When taken as a tincture the effects and duration are similar to other methods of oral ingestion, though they may be significantly more intense, depending on extract potency.[66]

Effects

See also: Salvinorin A § Pharmaceutical action

Aside from individual reported experiences, there has been a limited amount of published work summarising salvia divinorum effects. A survey of salvia users found that 38% described the effects as unique in comparison to other methods of altering consciousness. 23% said the effects were like yoga, meditation or trance.[76] Users have written prose about their experiences;[77][78] some describing their visions pictorially, and there exist examples of visionary art which are 'salvia-inspired'. Others claim musical inspiration from the plant.[78]

Near-death experience

A 2019 large-scale study found that ketamine, Salvia divinorum, and DMT (and other classical psychedelic substances) are linked to near-death experiences.[79]

Safety

Dale Pendell expressed some concerns about the use of highly concentrated forms of salvia. In its natural form, salvia is more balanced and benevolent – and quite strong enough, he argues. High strength extracts on the other hand can show "a more precipitous, and more terrifying, face" and many who try it this way may never wish to repeat the experience.[80]

Vaporization

Ethnobotanist Daniel Siebert cautions that inhaling hot air can be irritating and potentially damaging to the lungs. Vapor produced by a heat gun needs to be cooled by running it through a water pipe or cooling chamber before inhalation.[81]

Research

An ABC news report said excitement over research into Salvia "could vanish overnight if the federal government criminalized the sale or possession of salvia, as the Drug Enforcement Agency [sic] is considering doing right now."[82] A proposed Schedule I classification would mean (among other things) that there is no "currently accepted medical use" as far as the United States government is concerned.[83] Scientists worry that such legislation would restrict further work.[84][85] Mendelsohn said scheduling salvia could scare away a great deal of research and development into salvia's therapeutic promise.[82]

Controversy

A rectangular plastic re-sealable zipper storage bag that appears to be approximately 10 by 15 centimeters. The bag has a white label and a large wavy orange stripe. The top of the label reads: "THE STANDARDIZED SALVIA DIVINORUM" in large letters and "STANDARDIZED 20X EXTRACT" in smaller letters immediately below. The bottom of the label reads "8 mg STANDARDIZED SALVINORIN-A EXTRACT" in small letters. Affixed to the bag is an orange price tag reading "SPECIAL $5.99."
Salvia extract as it is commonly sold in stores where it is legal.

The relatively recent emergence of Salvia divinorum in modern Western culture, in comparison to its long continuing traditions of indigenous use, contrasts widely differing attitudes on the subject.

Opinions range from veneration of the plant as a spiritual sacrament or "a gift from the gods",[24][86] to a "threat to society", to be banned as quickly as possible in order to "spare countless families the horror of losing a loved one to the relentless tentacles of drug abuse".[87]

Media coverage

Interest in Salvia divinorum has been escalating in the news media, particularly in the United States, where an increasing number of newspaper reports have been published and television news stories broadcast.[88]

These stories generally raise alarms over salvia's legal status, for example comparing it to LSD,[89][90][91] or describing it as "the new pot",[92] with parental concerns being raised by particular focus on salvia's use by younger teens.

Story headlines may also include 'danger' keywords, such as "Dangerous Herb is Legal..."[93] or "Deadly Dangers Of A Street Legal High".[94]

Mainstream news coverage and journalistic opinion has widely been negative on the subject. In a local news report aired on ABC affiliate WJLA in Washington, DC on July 11, 2007, the anchors are seen to exchange expressions of incredulity when referring to a salvia story with the following introduction "Now, an exclusive I-Team investigation of a hallucinogenic drug that has begun to sweep the nation. What might amaze you is that right now the federal government is doing nothing to stop it".[95]

In March 2008 a Texas news report aired with the story "A legal drug that teenagers are now using to get high could soon be banned here in San Antonio - all because of a Fox News 4 investigation", going on to say, "The drug is legal in Texas, at least for now. But a News 4 investigation could lead to a new ordinance to protect your kids."[96]

Many salvia media stories headline with comparisons to LSD. However, while LSD and salvinorin A may have comparative potencies, in the sense that both can produce their effects at low dosages, they are otherwise quite different. The two substances are not chemically similar or related, as salvinorin A is found naturally in a single plant while LSD is chemically semisynthesized from lysergamides like ergotamine. They are ingested in different ways and produce different effects, which manifest themselves over different timescales. For example, the effects of salvia when smoked typically last for only a few minutes as compared to LSD, whose effects can persist for 8–12 hours.[68][97]

Brett's law

Main article: Brett's law

A particular focus of many US media stories is the long-running coverage of the case of Brett Chidester,[95][98] a 17-year-old Delaware student who committed suicide in January 2006 by carbon monoxide poisoning.

Reportedly, some months before this, Brett's mother Kathleen Chidester had learned about his salvia use and questioned him about it. Brett said that he had ceased his experimentation, but his parents did not believe that he was telling the truth. They have instead argued that salvia-induced depression was largely to blame for his death. Some of Brett's earlier writings about his salvia experiences have been used to suggest that it made him think "existence in general is pointless." Some media stories have referred to these earlier written experience reports as if they were part of Brett's suicide note.[85][98] A law was soon passed in Delaware classifying the herb as a Schedule I controlled substance in that state. This legislation was nicknamed Brett's law (formally referred to as Senate bill 259).[99]

Although the Chidester story has been given continued exposure by US media, there has not been anywhere else, either before or since this controversial incident, any other reported cases involving or alleging Salvia divinorum as a serious factor in suicide, overdose, accidental, or any other kind of death. Regarding this, San Francisco attorney Alex Coolman has commented, "It's remarkable that Chidester's parents, and only Chidester's parents, continue to be cited over and over again by the mainstream media in their coverage of the supposed 'controversy' over the risks of Salvia divinorum."[100]

Kathleen Chidester has continued campaigning for "Schedule I"-like legislation beyond their home state of Delaware. For example, three years after Brett's death, in written testimony in support of Senator Richard Colburn's proposed Senate Bill to the Maryland State Legislature, saying, "My hope and goal is to have salvia regulated across the US. It's my son's legacy and I will not end my fight until this happens."[101]

Usage shown on YouTube

In 2007, videos were shared on YouTube of alleged salvia users laughing uncontrollably, apparently unable to perform simple tasks or to communicate.[95][102] In an interview published in the San Francisco Chronicle in June 2007, Daniel Siebert said that the videos "make salvia look like some horrible drug that makes people nuts and dangerous ..." and that it stops people from realizing "there are sensible ways to use something like this."[103]

Waco Representative Charles Anderson (R), who is sponsoring one of several bills to ban salvia in Texas,[nb 3] told colleagues at a legislative hearing about a video that depicts a salvia user behind the wheel of a car. "What we really worry about, is youngsters doing this and then getting in a vehicle or getting on a motorcycle or jumping in a pool somewhere."[104]

Michigan Representative Michael Sak (D) submitted a bill which proposed Schedule I classification of Salvia divinorum and salvinorin A.[105] He said that if people had questions about the deleterious effects of salvia, they should go on YouTube to watch the videos. A reporter questioned Sak as to whether he had ever seen a "Girls Gone Wild" video, and whether that would incite him to make alcohol illegal (Sak replied that he hadn't yet had a chance to review the material).[nb 4]

Nebraska Senator Vickie McDonald responded with "Anytime anything's on YouTube it's an issue," and "Legislators, parents, grandparents, we need to be on top of these things,"[108][109] McDonald proposed Schedule I listing Salvia divinorum as part of their Controlled Substances Act, under which possession of salvia would have been considered a Class IV felony with a penalty of up to five years and trafficking would have fallen under a Class III felony with up to a 20 year penalty.[109]

In Massachusetts, YouTube videos were shown by a retired police officer to public health and judiciary committees as evidence in favor of outlawing it there.[110]

The issue has been raised of whether the salvia videos are in breach of YouTube's own community guidelines, which ask users not to "cross the line" and post videos showing "bad stuff" like "drug abuse".[111] The question is considered as particularly problematical as the videos may be something of an enforcement grey area.[112]

Main article: Legal status of Salvia divinorum

Many countries control Salvia divinorum in some manner.[7][113] As of 2015, it is illegal in Australia, Belgium, Canada, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Republic of Ireland, Romania, South Korea, Sweden, and Switzerland. It is legal to possess and grow in Chile, France and Spain, but not to sell. In Russia, it is legal to possess, but not grow or sell. Estonia, Finland, Iceland, and Norway treat it as a medicinal herb that requires a prescription.[114]

The prohibitive degree of Salvia divinorum legislation varies widely from country to country. Australia has imposed its strictest 'schedule 9' (US Schedule I equivalent), and Italy has also placed salvia in its 'Table I' of controlled substances (also US Schedule I equivalent). In Spain, there are controls focusing only on the commercial trade of Salvia divinorum, personal cultivation (i.e. for non-commercial use) is not targeted.[114][113]

Legislation may prove difficult to enforce. The plant has a nondescript appearance; unlike many other drug plants, the leaves are non-descript, and without a detectable odour. Salvia divinorum can be grown as an ordinary houseplant without the need of special equipment such as hydroponics or high-power lights.[115][116][119]

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, following a local newspaper story in October 2005,[120] a parliamentary Early Day Motion was raised calling for Salvia divinorum to be banned there. However, it only received 11 signatures.[121] A second motion raised in October 2008 attracted 18 signatures,[122] and it was reported that Mann had also written to Jacqui Smith, then Home Secretary. The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs, the independent body that advises UK government on drugs, was asked to investigate further.[123]

On the 28 January 2016, the Psychoactive Substances Act 2016 was passed. The act came into force on 26 May 2016, across the entire United Kingdom, making S. divinorum illegal to possess with intent to supply, possess on custodial premises, import for human consumption, or produce for human consumption. The two sponsors for the bill were Conservative House of Lords member Michael Bates and Conservative MP Theresa May.[124]

Australia

Salvia divinorum is considered a Schedule 9 prohibited plant in Australia under the Poisons Standard (October 2015).[125] A schedule 9 drug is outlined in the Poisons Act 1964 as "Substances which may be abused or misused, the manufacture, possession, sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research, or for analytical, teaching or training purposes with approval of the CEO."[126]

United States

Main article: Legal status of Salvia divinorum in the United States

National legislation for amendment of the Controlled Substances Act to place salvinorin A and Salvia divinorum in Schedule I at the federal level in the United States was proposed in 2002 by Representative Joe Baca (D- California). Those opposed to bill HR 5607 include Daniel Siebert, who sent a letter to Congress arguing against the proposed legislation,[127] and the Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics (CCLE), who sent key members of the US Congress a report on Salvia divinorum and its active principle,[19] along with letters from an array of scientists who expressed concern that scheduling Salvia divinorum would negatively impact important research on the plant. The bill did not pass.[128][129][130]

Although salvia is not regulated under the Controlled Substances Act, as of 2009, it had been made illegal in 13 states.[131][132] Delaware banned it after salvia use was reported to have played a role in the suicide of a teenager.[132] Alabama, Delaware, Illinois, Louisiana, Michigan, Missouri, Ohio, Texas, and other states have passed their own laws.[7][133][134] Several other states have proposed legislation against salvia, including Alaska, California, Florida, Iowa, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, and Pennsylvania. Many of these proposals have not made it into law, with motions having failed, stalled or otherwise died, for example at committee review stages.[114][113]

Where individual state legislation does exist, it varies from state to state in its prohibitive degree.[114]

Legal consequences may also exist even in states without bans on salvia in particular. Christian Firoz, a Nebraska store owner, was charged for selling salvia, but not under the auspices of any specific law against Salvia divinorum. Firoz was instead charged under a general Nebraskan statute where it is illegal to sell a product to induce an intoxicated condition. See also the legal status of salvia in North Dakota and Nebraska.

Salvia divinorum has been banned by various branches of the U.S. military and some military bases.[135][136][137]

Internet sale

Some internet vendors will not sell live salvia cuttings, leaf, or leaf products to states where its use is restricted or prohibited.[138] Per their drugs and drug paraphernelia policy, eBay does not permit sale of Salvia divinorum or derived products (despite legality in most areas).[139]

Opinions and arguments

Main article: Legal status of Salvia divinorum § Opinions and arguments

Concerns expressed by some politicians on the subject of salvia reflect those of the media, with comparisons to LSD and particular focus on "protecting our children" being echoed;[89][140][141] and with legislative proposals following soon after news stories breaking.[93][96][142][143][144]

Some arguments against salvia have been of a preventative nature, "We need to stop this before it gets to be a huge problem not after it gets to be a huge problem,"[145] or of an imitative nature, "The Australians have clearly found a problem with it. There's obviously a risk in people taking it."[120] Concerns about driving while under the influence of salvia have also been expressed.[146][147]

Opponents of more prohibitive measures against salvia argue that such reactions are largely due to an inherent prejudice and a particular cultural bias rather than any actual balance of evidence, pointing out inconsistencies in attitudes toward other more toxic and addictive drugs such as alcohol and nicotine.[148][nb 5][nb 6] While not objecting to some form of legal control, in particular with regard to the sale to minors or sale of enhanced high-strength extracts, most salvia proponents otherwise argue against stricter legislation.[114]

Those advocating consideration of Salvia divinorum's potential for beneficial use in a modern context argue that more could be learned from Mazatec culture, where salvia is not really associated with notions of drug taking at all and it is rather considered as a spiritual sacrament. In light of this it is argued that Salvia divinorum could be better understood more positively as an entheogen rather than pejoratively as a hallucinogen.[153][nb 7]

Public opinion

Despite its growing notoriety in some circles, media stories generally suggest that the public at large are still mostly unaware of salvia, with the majority perhaps having never even heard of it.[98]

Although published responses may not necessarily be representative of public opinion as a whole, some news agencies generally support reader and viewer feedback in connection with their stories.[87][89][96][98][157]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f Valdés, Díaz & Paul 1983, p. 287.
  2. ^ a b "Salvia divinorum Epling & Játiva". Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 21 December 2022.
  3. ^ a b c "Salvia divinorum". Drugs.com. 2018. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
  4. ^ a b c Butelman, Eduardo R; Kreek, Mary Jeanne (2015). "Salvinorin A, a kappa-opioid receptor agonist hallucinogen: Pharmacology and potential template for novel pharmacotherapeutic agents in neuropsychiatric disorders". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 6: 190. doi:10.3389/fphar.2015.00190. PMC 4561799. PMID 26441647.
  5. ^ "'Salvia Killed My Son,' Says Mother". ABC News. 2009-02-02.
  6. ^ a b "Salvia Divinorum and Salvinorin A 2020" (PDF). Drugs and Chemicals of Concern. Diversion Control - U.S. Department of Justice - Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). March 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 April 2020. Retrieved 7 December 2022. Street Names: Maria Pastora, Sage of the Seers, Diviner's Sage, Salvia, Sally-D, Magic Mint
  7. ^ a b c "Salvia Divinorum and Salvinorin A 2008". Drugs and Chemicals of Concern. Office of Diversion Control - U.S. Department of Justice - Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). June 2008. Archived from the original on 22 June 2008. Retrieved 15 September 2008.
  8. ^ a b c d Reisfield 1993, Introduction.
  9. ^ a b c Valdes 1987, p. 106.
  10. ^ a b Marushia 2002, p. 3.
  11. ^ a b c d e Reisfield 1993, The Barrier to Fertility.
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  16. ^ Grundmann 2007
  17. ^ Kintzios 2000
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  21. ^ Medana et al. 2005, p. 131.
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  23. ^ USDA, NRCS (n.d.). "​Salvia divinorum​". The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov). Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team. Retrieved 28 October 2015.
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  25. ^ Marushia 2002, p. 6.
  26. ^ a b Marushia 2002, p. 2.
  27. ^ Valdés, Díaz & Paul 1983, p. 290.
  28. ^ Wasson 1963.
  29. ^ Valdés 2001.
  30. ^ a b Ott 1995.
  31. ^ Dweck 1997, p.15.
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  33. ^ a b Giroud 2000.
  34. ^ a b c d e Clebsch & Barner 2003, p. 106.
  35. ^ Reisfield 1993, Previous Research.
  36. ^ a b c Ott 1996
  37. ^ a b c Jenks, Aaron A.; Walker, Jay B.; Kim, Seung-Chul (2010). "Evolution and origins of the Mazatec hallucinogenic sage, Salvia divinorum (Lamiaceae): a molecular phylogenetic approach". Journal of Plant Research. 124 (5): 593–600. doi:10.1007/s10265-010-0394-6. PMID 21125306. S2CID 28382245.
  38. ^ Marushia 2002, p. 4.
  39. ^ Reisfield 1993, Distribution, Ecology, & Flower Initiation.
  40. ^ Reisflield 1987, p. 199.
  41. ^ Jenks, Aaron A.; Walker, Jay B.; Kim, Seung-Chul (July 2013). "Phylogeny of New World Salvia subgenus Calosphace (Lamiaceae) based on cpDNA (psbA-trnH) and nrDNA (ITS) sequence data". Journal of Plant Research. 126 (4): 483–496. Bibcode:2013JPlR..126..483J. doi:10.1007/s10265-012-0543-1. PMID 23263465. S2CID 10118010.
  42. ^ Foley 1993, p. 56.
  43. ^ Erowid, Salvia Timeline Archived 2009-04-19 at the Wayback Machine.
  44. ^ Siebert 2003.
  45. ^ Siebert, 'Luna' Clone Archived 2009-07-20 at the Wayback Machine.
  46. ^ Spectral Mindustries. "The Salvia Divinorum Grower's Guide" (PDF). Shroomery.
  47. ^ Siebert (Cultivation advice).
  48. ^ Beifuss 1997.
  49. ^ McCall, Carl P.; Siebert, Daniel. "Growing your OWN Salvia divinorum Seeds: A Simple Step by Step Illustrated Guide". Archived from the original on 2011-01-12. Retrieved 2011-02-10.
  50. ^ a b c Prisinzano 2006, p. 528.
  51. ^ Harding, Schmidt & Tidgewell 2006, p. 107.
  52. ^ Siebert 2004.
  53. ^ Kunkel 2004.
  54. ^ a b Imanshahidi & Hosseinzadeh 2006, p. 431.
  55. ^ Marushia 2002, p. 11.
  56. ^ Greiner T; Burch NR; Edelberg R (1958). "Psychopathology and psychophysiology of minimal LSD-25 dosage; a preliminary dosage-response spectrum". AMA Arch Neurol Psychiatry. 79 (2): 208–10. doi:10.1001/archneurpsyc.1958.02340020088016. PMID 13497365.
  57. ^ Zhang et al. 2005, p. abstract.
  58. ^ Seeman et al. 2009.
  59. ^ Harding 2005.
  60. ^ Bigham et al. 2003.
  61. ^ Munro & Rizzacasa 2003.
  62. ^ Capasso 2006.
  63. ^ Masis 2007-02-28 (US Media)
  64. ^ Prisinzano, Tidgewell & Harding 2005.
  65. ^ Capasso 2008.
  66. ^ a b c d e Sage Student - Sd User Guide.
  67. ^ Harrison. The Leaves of the Shepherdess. 2000.
  68. ^ a b c Siebert (FAQ)—Section VI.
  69. ^ Siebert (FAQ)—Section X.
  70. ^ Valdes 1983.
  71. ^ SAMHSA 2006.
  72. ^ Sullum 2009.
  73. ^ a b Siebert (Smoke advice).
  74. ^ Siebert (FAQ)—Section IV.
  75. ^ Siebert 1994.
  76. ^ Baggott & Erowid 2004, p. 14.
  77. ^ Lizard 2001.
  78. ^ a b Siebert (Arts)
  79. ^ Martial, C; Cassol, H; Charland-Verville, V; Pallavicini, C; Sanz, C; Zamberlan, F; Vivot, RM; Erowid, F; Erowid, E; Laureys, S; Greyson, B; Tagliazucchi, E (March 2019). "Neurochemical models of near-death experiences: A large-scale study based on the semantic similarity of written reports". Consciousness and Cognition. 69: 52–69. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2019.01.011. hdl:2268/231971. PMID 30711788. S2CID 73432875.
  80. ^ Pendell 1995.
  81. ^ "Ask Erowid : ID 3139 : Do vaporizers work with Salvia divinorum?".
  82. ^ a b Terry 2007-10-03 (US Media).
  83. ^ DEA 2002, title 21, section 812.
  84. ^ Roth 2007.
  85. ^ a b Schaper 2006-03-20 (US Media).
  86. ^ Schultes 1992.
  87. ^ a b Cardall 2006-12-12 (US Media).
  88. ^ Shafer 2008-05-06 (US Media).
  89. ^ a b c Martell 2007-06-18 (US Media).
  90. ^ Devine 2007-02-19 (US Media).
  91. ^ Blake 2006-11-13 (US Media).
  92. ^ Sanchick 2007-02-14 (US Media).
  93. ^ a b Dujanovic 2006-11-27 (US Media).
  94. ^ Quinones 2006-11-30 (US Media).
  95. ^ a b c Baskin 2007-07-11 (US Media).
  96. ^ a b c Chancellor 2008-03-14 (US Media).
  97. ^ Shulgin 1997.
  98. ^ a b c d Anderson 2006-04-13 (US Media).
  99. ^ Peterson 2006.
  100. ^ Coolman 2007.
  101. ^ Michael 2009-01-28 (US Media).
  102. ^ Sontaya 2007-05-10 (US Media).
  103. ^ Allday 2007-06-27 (US Media).
  104. ^ a b Sack 2008-09-08 (US Media).
  105. ^ Sak 2008.
  106. ^ McNamara 2008-04-30 (US Media).
  107. ^ a b c d e f MiSP 2006.
  108. ^ White 2008-01-08 (US Media).
  109. ^ a b Berry 2008-01-07 (US Media).
  110. ^ Sege 2008-07-22 (US Media).
  111. ^ YouTube Guidelines 2008.
  112. ^ Sarno 2008-09-12 (US Media).
  113. ^ a b c Erowid (Legal status).
  114. ^ a b c d e Siebert (Legal status).
  115. ^ Shulgin 2003.
  116. ^ Chalmers 2006-05-06 (US Media).
  117. ^ DRCNet 2008-04-25 (US Media).
  118. ^ Michael 2008-08-03 (US Media).
  119. ^ The case of North Dakota resident Kenneth Rau is reported as likely being the first person charged for Salvia divinorum possession in the United States.[117][118]
  120. ^ a b Worksop 2005-10-14 (UK Media).
  121. ^ Mann 2005.
  122. ^ Early day motion 2235 Archived 2017-10-12 at the Wayback Machine. Parliament UK. Retrieved 12 July 2017.
  123. ^ There are many drugs that help people get out of their minds yet stay within the law - they're called 'legal highs' Archived 2009-04-29 at the Wayback Machine. The Guardian. Published 26 April 2009. Retrieved 12 July 2017.
  124. ^ Psychoactive Substances Act 2016 Archived 2017-04-27 at the Wayback Machine. Parliament. Retrieved 7 May 2017.
  125. ^ "Poisons Standard October 2015". Comlaw.gov.au. 30 September 2015. Retrieved 26 March 2022.
  126. ^ "Poisons Act 1964" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-12-22. Retrieved 26 March 2022.
  127. ^ Siebert 2002.
  128. ^ Baca 2002.
  129. ^ DEA 2003.
  130. ^ CCLE 2002.
  131. ^ Honeycutt 2009-02-09 (US Media)
  132. ^ a b Mason 2009-01-30 (US Media).
  133. ^ "Code of Alabama 1975". Alabama Legislature. p. Section 13A–12–214.1. Archived from the original on 6 July 2014. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
  134. ^ "Texas HB124 | 2013-2014 | 83rd Legislature". Legiscan.com. Retrieved 26 March 2022.
  135. ^ "Erowid Salvia Divinorum Vault : Legal Status". Erowid.org. Retrieved 2011-05-01.
  136. ^ "Awareness Training On Salvia Divinorum" (PDF). Erowid.org. February 2004. Retrieved 26 March 2022.
  137. ^ Sheri Kangas (2007-09-19). "Hallucinogenic Salvia illegal for military members". .hurlburt.af.mil. Archived from the original on 2011-07-20. Retrieved 2011-05-01.
  138. ^ Hoyle 2008-03-12 (US Media).
  139. ^ eBay Policy 2009.
  140. ^ Clark 2007-03-05 (US Media).
  141. ^ Reboletti 2007 (Mar).
  142. ^ a b Dujanovic 2006-11-28 (US Media).
  143. ^ Sanchick 2007-02-15 (US Media).
  144. ^ Eckenrode 2007-03-08 (US Media).
  145. ^ KXMBTV 2007-01-31 (US Media).
  146. ^ NBC10 2006-04-11 (US Media).
  147. ^ Smith 2007-09-25 (US Media).
  148. ^ Nutt et al. 2007.
  149. ^ Follow The Money, Industry Influence.
  150. ^ Reboletti 2007 (Jan), full text - p.7.
  151. ^ Lopez 2005, Table 2.
  152. ^ NIAAA 2001.
  153. ^ Blosser (Mazatec Lessons).
  154. ^ see peyote, iboga, virola, ayahuasca, etc.
  155. ^ see Native American Church and União do Vegetal.
  156. ^ Madison 1789.
  157. ^ Tompkins 2007-07-13 (US Media).

Citations

Notes

  1. ^ Botanist Valdés (1987), wrote that, "It is doubtful that the Salvia is a true cultigen", based partly on his belief that it was first "collected in the highlands and planted in more accessible places, where it becomes naturalized". The main cultigen proponent is Gordon Wasson, who is not a botanist.
  2. ^ Reisfield is unsure why Epling "used the invalid name (the synonym rather than the valid name S. concolor), nor why he considered this species close to S. divinorum".
  3. ^ In fact the video is one in a series of parodies featuring Erik J. Hoffstad, a production assistant in Los Angeles. In the film Hoffstad smokes salvia in a parked car (his friends reportedly making sure he did not have the real keys).[104]
  4. ^ The reporter noted that Sak had received more money from the Michigan Beer and Wine Wholesalers Association than anyone else in the House.[106] According to the National Institute on Money in State Politics, the Michigan Beer and Wine Wholesalers Association was the highest contributor to Zak's 2006 political campaign.[107]
  5. ^ According to the National Institute on Money in State Politics, which indicates the major sources of campaign contributions for U.S. politicians, a large part of contributions to U.S. Congressional campaigns comes from alcohol and tobacco industries.[149] For example, Oregon Representative John Lim"s third largest individual campaign sponsor in 2006 was the Oregon Beer & Wine Distributors Association[107] Lim(R) argued for Schedule I classification of Salvia in Oregon. Former Delaware Senator Karen Peterson's second largest group campaign donations in 2006 came from "Beer, Wine & Liquor" industries.[107] Peterson(D) introduced Schedule I classification of Salvia divinorum in Delaware. Senator Tim Burchett(R) sponsored Salvia legislation in Tennessee. In 2006, his second largest individual campaign donation came from the Tennessee Malt Beverage Association.[107] In the same period alcohol and tobacco related contributions amounted to the fourth largest industry contributions for Utah Representative Paul Ray(R).[107] Representative Ray submitted a bill calling for Schedule I classification of Salvia in that state.[142] Alcohol related contributions also featured highly for Illinois Representative Dennis Reboletti(R) "Beer, Wine & Liquor" was his ninth highest industry contributor in 2006 and 2008.[107] Representative Reboletti sponsored a bill for Schedule I classification of Salvia divinorum in Illinois.[150]
  6. ^ The worldwide number of alcohol-related deaths is calculated at over 2,000 people per day,[151] in the US the number is over 300 deaths per day.[152]
  7. ^ Other entheogenic plants with continuing traditions principally of spiritual use include peyote (and other psychoactive cacti), iboga, virola, ayahuasca, and various types of psychoactive fungi.[154] Current U.S. Federal law allows two of these to be used in a spiritual context. The Native American Church is permitted use of peyote; the União do Vegetal (or UDV) is permitted use of ayahuasca.[155] Although not consistently granted (varying from state to state), the principal grounds for such concessions are constitutional,[156] with further grounds following from the Religious Freedom Restoration Act.

News references

UK

U.S.

Follow-up story: "Indiana's Legal High: Regulating Substance Faces Long Road". 2007-11-27. Archived from the original on 2007-12-03. Retrieved 2007-11-29.
Follow-up story: Lawmaker Responds to Investigative Report on Dangerous Herb Archived 2007-05-06 at the Wayback Machine, 2006-11-28.
Cardall, Duane. KSL Editorial Archived 2007-05-06 at the Wayback Machine, 2006-12-01.
viewer feedback Archived 2011-08-29 at the Wayback Machine—asx video Archived 2011-07-19 at the Wayback Machine (save & use media player)
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