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a full description of the receptor. |
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{{Short description|Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens}} |
{{Short description|Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens}} |
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{{Infobox_gene}} |
{{Infobox_gene}} |
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'''TAS2R16''' ('''[[taste receptor]], type 2, member 16''') is a bitter taste receptor and one of the 25 TAS2Rs. TAS2Rs are receptors that belong to the G-protein-coupled receptors |
'''TAS2R16''' ('''[[taste receptor]], type 2, member 16''') is a bitter taste receptor and one of the 25 TAS2Rs. TAS2Rs are receptors that belong to the G-protein-coupled receptors [[G protein-coupled receptor|(GPCRs]]) family. These receptors detect various bitter substances found in nature as [[agonist]]s, and get stimulated. TAS2R16 receptor is mainly expressed within taste buds present on the surface of the tongue and palate epithelium.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Itoigawa A, Hayakawa T, Suzuki-Hashido N, Imai H | title = A natural point mutation in the bitter taste receptor TAS2R16 causes inverse agonism of arbutin in lemur gustation | journal = Proceedings. Biological Sciences | volume = 286 | issue = 1904 | pages = 20190884 | date = June 2019 | pmid = 31161904 | pmc = 6571456 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2019.0884 }}</ref> TAS2R16 is activated by bitter β-glucopyranosides (such as salicin)<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bufe B, Hofmann T, Krautwurst D, Raguse JD, Meyerhof W | title = The human TAS2R16 receptor mediates bitter taste in response to beta-glucopyranosides | journal = Nature Genetics | volume = 32 | issue = 3 | pages = 397–401 | date = November 2002 | pmid = 12379855 | doi = 10.1038/ng1014 | s2cid = 20426192 }}</ref> |
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== Other Names == |
== Other Names == |
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== Gene == |
== Gene == |
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The receptor is encoded by the TAS2R16 human gene which located on the long (q) arm of [[chromosome 7]] at position 31.1-31.3, 997 bases |
The receptor is encoded by the TAS2R16 human gene which located on the long (q) arm of [[chromosome 7]] at position 31.1-31.3, 997 bases<ref>{{Cite web |last=GeneCards |title=TAS2R16 Gene : Taste 2 Receptor Member 16 |url=https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=TAS2R16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=BitterDB |title=hTAS2R16 - Taste receptor type 2 member 16 |url=https://bitterdb.agri.huji.ac.il/Receptor.php?id=16}}</ref>.This gene is specifically expressed by taste receptor cells of the tongue and palate epithelia. Different individuals may have variations in the TAS2R16 gene, which can influence their sensitivity or preference for certain bitter compounds. |
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[[File:TAS2R16_receptor-_structure.png|alt= A convenient representation of the receptor sequence and its TM regions, shown here for hTAS2R16. The seven TM helices are displayed as predicted by Topcons. The most conserved residue in each helix X (BW number X.50) has black background. Residues for which mutation data are available are marked with red.|thumb|284x284px|2D transmembrane protein diagram]] |
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== Structure == |
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TAS2R16 consists of 291 amino acids. Molecular weight: 33,986 (Da). The receptor has 7 transmembrane helices, 3 intracellular loops and 3 extracellular loops. there are some conserved residues (black) and residues for which mutagenesis data is available<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wiener |first=Ayana |last2=Shudler |first2=Marina |last3=Levit |first3=Anat |last4=Niv |first4=Masha Y. |date=2011-09-22 |title=BitterDB: a database of bitter compounds |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkr755 |journal=Nucleic Acids Research |volume=40 |issue=D1 |pages=D413–D419 |doi=10.1093/nar/gkr755 |issn=1362-4962}}</ref>. |
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== Function == |
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The function of TAS2R16 is to bind to specific bitter-tasting molecules present in various foods, plants, and potentially harmful substances. When binding to these molecules, TAS2R16 initiates a signaling cascade that leads to the transmission of signals to the brain, which results in the perception of bitterness. TAS2R16 specifically is believed to play a central role in determining human preference to eat or avoid such vegetables with bitter β-glucosides, important dietary choices that ultimately influence human health<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Anu |last2=Sulli |first2=Chidananda |last3=Davidson |first3=Edgar |last4=Berdougo |first4=Eli |last5=Phillips |first5=Morganne |last6=Puffer |first6=Bridget A. |last7=Paes |first7=Cheryl |last8=Doranz |first8=Benjamin J. |last9=Rucker |first9=Joseph B. |date=2017-08-10 |title=The Bitter Taste Receptor TAS2R16 Achieves High Specificity and Accommodates Diverse Glycoside Ligands by using a Two-faced Binding Pocket |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-07256-y |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-07256-y |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=PMC5552880 |pmid=28798468}}</ref>. |
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The signaling pathway includes two essential components of the well-established taste signal transduction cascade: phospholipase C isoform β2 (PLCβ2) and the ion channel known as transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily M member 5 (TRPM5)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jeruzal-Świątecka |first=Joanna |last2=Fendler |first2=Wojciech |last3=Pietruszewska |first3=Wioletta |date=2020-07-21 |title=Clinical Role of Extraoral Bitter Taste Receptors |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms21145156 |journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences |volume=21 |issue=14 |pages=5156 |doi=10.3390/ijms21145156 |issn=1422-0067}}</ref>. Ca2+-flux signaling assays are commonly used to measure the function of TAS2R16 and other GPCRs, so this measurement represents the key function of the receptor<ref name=":0" />. |
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== Ligands (from BitterDB<ref>{{Cite web |title=hTAS2R16 - Taste receptor type 2 member 16 |url=https://bitterdb.agri.huji.ac.il/Receptor.php?id=16}}</ref>) == |
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There are 13 known ligands for TAS2R16. |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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|Diphenidol (synthetic) |
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|D-salicin,Salicin |
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|- |
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|Sodium Benzoate (synthetic) |
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|Phenyl beta -D-glucopyranoside |
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|- |
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|Amygdalin, D |
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|Esculine Aesculin |
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|- |
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|Arbutin |
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|2-Naphthyl beta-D-glucopyranoside |
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|- |
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|Helicin |
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|Methyl beta-D-glucoside |
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|- |
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|sinigrin |
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|2-nitro phenyl beta -D-glucopyranoside |
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|} |
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The most well-studied natural ligand of TAS2R16 is salicin. In previous researches which analyzed how this receptor binds and signals, 38 residues that may be involved in signal transduction and 13 residues that contribute to ligand-specific interactions, were found to be involved<ref name=":0" />. |
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β-glucoside analogues are specific agonists of TAS2R16 in humans. These analogues, such as natural toxins, are molecular scafold consists of a D-glucose monosaccharide linked by an oxygen atom to a phenyl group. Arbutin was the first known natural inverse agonist for TAS2Rs<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Itoigawa |first=Akihiro |last2=Hayakawa |first2=Takashi |last3=Suzuki-Hashido |first3=Nami |last4=Imai |first4=Hiroo |date=2019-06-12 |title=A natural point mutation in the bitter taste receptor TAS2R16 causes inverse agonism of arbutin in lemur gustation |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2019.0884 |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=286 |issue=1904 |pages=20190884 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2019.0884 |issn=0962-8452 |pmc=PMC6571456 |pmid=31161904}}</ref>. |
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Many plants, including cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli and brussels sprouts, contain bitter β-glucosides such as salicin, sinigrin, arbutin, and amygdalin<ref name=":0" />. |
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== SNP’s <ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Kurshed |first=Ali Abbas Mohammad |last2=Ádány |first2=Róza |last3=Diószegi |first3=Judit |date=2022-12-15 |title=The Impact of Taste Preference-Related Gene Polymorphisms on Alcohol Consumption Behavior: A Systematic Review |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms232415989 |journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences |volume=23 |issue=24 |pages=15989 |doi=10.3390/ijms232415989 |issn=1422-0067}}</ref> == |
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Taste receptors harbor many polymorphisms, and several SNPs have a profound impact on the gene function and expression. |
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{| class="wikitable" |
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|'''Alleles''' |
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|'''SNP''' '''ID''' |
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|- |
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|A > C, G |
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|rs846664 |
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|- |
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|C > T |
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|rs860170 |
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|- |
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|C > G, T |
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|rs1204014 |
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|- |
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|T > C, G |
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|rs978739 |
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|- |
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|A > C, T |
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|rs846672 |
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|- |
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|G > A, C, T |
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|rs1308724 |
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|} |
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Recently studies have shown that mutation of the ''TAS2R16'' gene could affect the intake of vegetables and anti-inflammatory food, which would influence age-related inflammatory diseases and increase the human lifespan. In addition, polymorphism of the ''TAS2R16'' gene seems to affect body mass index, alcohol intake, smoking and drug compliance. Many bitter natural foods have the function of heat-clearing, detoxifying, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial effects<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yuan |first=Gaoxiang |last2=Yan |first2=Huixuan |last3=Liu |first3=Ying |last4=Ding |first4=Xuhong |last5=Qi |first5=Xinglei |last6=Qu |first6=Kaixing |last7=Li |first7=Fuqiang |last8=Zhang |first8=Jicai |last9=Quji |first9=Suolang |last10=Lei |first10=Chuzhao |last11=Huang |first11=Bizhi |last12=Zeng |first12=Lulan |date=2022-01-01 |title=TAS2R16 introgression from banteng into indigenous Chinese cattle |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10495398.2021.2018334 |journal=Animal Biotechnology |language=en |pages=1–5 |doi=10.1080/10495398.2021.2018334 |issn=1049-5398}}</ref>. |
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== Alcohol Dependence == |
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[[Alcohol (drug)|Alcohol]] intake habits may be affected by the genetic diversity of taste preferences<ref name=":1" />. Alcohol dependence is significantly associated with the coding single-nucleotide polymorphism (cSNP) K172N in the gene hTAS2R16, which codes for a taste receptor for bitter b-glucopyranosides.This gene is found on chromosome 7q in a region that has been linked to alcoholism in some studies.The risk of alcohol use is higher in people with the ancestral [[gene]] K172. Individuals with this allele are at increased risk of alcohol dependence, regardless of ethnicity. However, this risk allele is rare in European Americans, but 45% of African Americans carry the allele , makes it a much more significant risk factor in the African American population<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hinrichs |first=Anthony L. |last2=Wang |first2=Jen C. |last3=Bufe |first3=Bernd |last4=Kwon |first4=Jennifer M. |last5=Budde |first5=John |last6=Allen |first6=Rebecca |last7=Bertelsen |first7=Sarah |last8=Evans |first8=Whitney |last9=Dick |first9=Danielle |last10=Rice |first10=John |last11=Foroud |first11=Tatiana |last12=Nurnberger |first12=John |last13=Tischfield |first13=Jay A. |last14=Kuperman |first14=Samuel |last15=Crowe |first15=Raymond |date=2006 |title=Functional Variant in a Bitter-Taste Receptor (hTAS2R16) Influences Risk of Alcohol Dependence |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S000292970760809X |journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics |language=en |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=103–111 |doi=10.1086/499253 |pmc=PMC1380207 |pmid=16385453}}</ref>. |
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== Longevity == |
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In a population of 941 individuals ranging from 60 to 106 years of age from the South of Italy, five significant associations between the SNPs in the chromosome 7 cluster and longevity was found, Three of them – observed in TAS2R16. SNP rs978739 showed a statistically significant association with longevity. The frequency of homozygotes A/A increases gradually from 35% in the subjects aged 20 to 70 up to 55% in centenarians<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Campa |first=Daniele |last2=De Rango |first2=Francesco |last3=Carrai |first3=Maura |last4=Crocco |first4=Paolina |last5=Montesanto |first5=Alberto |last6=Canzian |first6=Federico |last7=Rose |first7=Giuseppina |last8=Rizzato |first8=Cosmeri |last9=Passarino |first9=Giuseppe |last10=Barale |first10=Roberto |date=2012-11-02 |editor-last=Glendinning |editor-first=John I. |title=Bitter Taste Receptor Polymorphisms and Human Aging |url=https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0045232 |journal=PLoS ONE |language=en |volume=7 |issue=11 |pages=e45232 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0045232 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=PMC3487725 |pmid=23133589}}</ref>. |
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== Clinical significance == |
== Clinical significance == |
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Revision as of 18:57, 3 July 2023
| TAS2R16 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Aliases | TAS2R16, T2R16, taste 2 receptor member 16, BGLPT | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| External IDs | OMIM: 604867; MGI: 2681247; HomoloGene: 9660; GeneCards: TAS2R16; OMA:TAS2R16 - orthologs | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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TAS2R16 (taste receptor, type 2, member 16) is a bitter taste receptor and one of the 25 TAS2Rs. TAS2Rs are receptors that belong to the G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) family. These receptors detect various bitter substances found in nature as agonists, and get stimulated. TAS2R16 receptor is mainly expressed within taste buds present on the surface of the tongue and palate epithelium.[5] TAS2R16 is activated by bitter β-glucopyranosides (such as salicin)[6]
Other Names
T2R16, Taste receptor 2 member 16, BGLPT.
Gene
The receptor is encoded by the TAS2R16 human gene which located on the long (q) arm of chromosome 7 at position 31.1-31.3, 997 bases[7][8].This gene is specifically expressed by taste receptor cells of the tongue and palate epithelia. Different individuals may have variations in the TAS2R16 gene, which can influence their sensitivity or preference for certain bitter compounds.
Structure
TAS2R16 consists of 291 amino acids. Molecular weight: 33,986 (Da). The receptor has 7 transmembrane helices, 3 intracellular loops and 3 extracellular loops. there are some conserved residues (black) and residues for which mutagenesis data is available[9].
Function
The function of TAS2R16 is to bind to specific bitter-tasting molecules present in various foods, plants, and potentially harmful substances. When binding to these molecules, TAS2R16 initiates a signaling cascade that leads to the transmission of signals to the brain, which results in the perception of bitterness. TAS2R16 specifically is believed to play a central role in determining human preference to eat or avoid such vegetables with bitter β-glucosides, important dietary choices that ultimately influence human health[10].
The signaling pathway includes two essential components of the well-established taste signal transduction cascade: phospholipase C isoform β2 (PLCβ2) and the ion channel known as transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily M member 5 (TRPM5)[11]. Ca2+-flux signaling assays are commonly used to measure the function of TAS2R16 and other GPCRs, so this measurement represents the key function of the receptor[10].
Ligands (from BitterDB[12])
There are 13 known ligands for TAS2R16.
| Diphenidol (synthetic) | D-salicin,Salicin |
| Sodium Benzoate (synthetic) | Phenyl beta -D-glucopyranoside |
| Amygdalin, D | Esculine Aesculin |
| Arbutin | 2-Naphthyl beta-D-glucopyranoside |
| Helicin | Methyl beta-D-glucoside |
| sinigrin | 2-nitro phenyl beta -D-glucopyranoside |
The most well-studied natural ligand of TAS2R16 is salicin. In previous researches which analyzed how this receptor binds and signals, 38 residues that may be involved in signal transduction and 13 residues that contribute to ligand-specific interactions, were found to be involved[10].
β-glucoside analogues are specific agonists of TAS2R16 in humans. These analogues, such as natural toxins, are molecular scafold consists of a D-glucose monosaccharide linked by an oxygen atom to a phenyl group. Arbutin was the first known natural inverse agonist for TAS2Rs[13].
Many plants, including cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli and brussels sprouts, contain bitter β-glucosides such as salicin, sinigrin, arbutin, and amygdalin[10].
SNP’s [14]
Taste receptors harbor many polymorphisms, and several SNPs have a profound impact on the gene function and expression.
| Alleles | SNP ID |
| A > C, G | rs846664 |
| C > T | rs860170 |
| C > G, T | rs1204014 |
| T > C, G | rs978739 |
| A > C, T | rs846672 |
| G > A, C, T | rs1308724 |
Recently studies have shown that mutation of the TAS2R16 gene could affect the intake of vegetables and anti-inflammatory food, which would influence age-related inflammatory diseases and increase the human lifespan. In addition, polymorphism of the TAS2R16 gene seems to affect body mass index, alcohol intake, smoking and drug compliance. Many bitter natural foods have the function of heat-clearing, detoxifying, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial effects[15].
Alcohol Dependence
Alcohol intake habits may be affected by the genetic diversity of taste preferences[14]. Alcohol dependence is significantly associated with the coding single-nucleotide polymorphism (cSNP) K172N in the gene hTAS2R16, which codes for a taste receptor for bitter b-glucopyranosides.This gene is found on chromosome 7q in a region that has been linked to alcoholism in some studies.The risk of alcohol use is higher in people with the ancestral gene K172. Individuals with this allele are at increased risk of alcohol dependence, regardless of ethnicity. However, this risk allele is rare in European Americans, but 45% of African Americans carry the allele , makes it a much more significant risk factor in the African American population[16].
Longevity
In a population of 941 individuals ranging from 60 to 106 years of age from the South of Italy, five significant associations between the SNPs in the chromosome 7 cluster and longevity was found, Three of them – observed in TAS2R16. SNP rs978739 showed a statistically significant association with longevity. The frequency of homozygotes A/A increases gradually from 35% in the subjects aged 20 to 70 up to 55% in centenarians[17].
Clinical significance
Variants of this gene have been linked to an increased risk for alcohol dependence.[18]
There is an East African origin for high salicin sensitivity, and thus sensitivity to bitterness in people from this region, with this phenotype matched to TAS2R16 variants.[19]
See also
References
- ^ a b c GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000128519 – Ensembl, May 2017
- ^ a b c GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ENSMUSG00000043865 – Ensembl, May 2017
- ^ "Human PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
- ^ "Mouse PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
- ^ Itoigawa A, Hayakawa T, Suzuki-Hashido N, Imai H (June 2019). "A natural point mutation in the bitter taste receptor TAS2R16 causes inverse agonism of arbutin in lemur gustation". Proceedings. Biological Sciences. 286 (1904): 20190884. doi:10.1098/rspb.2019.0884. PMC 6571456. PMID 31161904.
- ^ Bufe B, Hofmann T, Krautwurst D, Raguse JD, Meyerhof W (November 2002). "The human TAS2R16 receptor mediates bitter taste in response to beta-glucopyranosides". Nature Genetics. 32 (3): 397–401. doi:10.1038/ng1014. PMID 12379855. S2CID 20426192.
- ^ GeneCards. "TAS2R16 Gene : Taste 2 Receptor Member 16".
- ^ BitterDB. "hTAS2R16 - Taste receptor type 2 member 16".
- ^ Wiener, Ayana; Shudler, Marina; Levit, Anat; Niv, Masha Y. (2011-09-22). "BitterDB: a database of bitter compounds". Nucleic Acids Research. 40 (D1): D413–D419. doi:10.1093/nar/gkr755. ISSN 1362-4962.
- ^ a b c d Thomas, Anu; Sulli, Chidananda; Davidson, Edgar; Berdougo, Eli; Phillips, Morganne; Puffer, Bridget A.; Paes, Cheryl; Doranz, Benjamin J.; Rucker, Joseph B. (2017-08-10). "The Bitter Taste Receptor TAS2R16 Achieves High Specificity and Accommodates Diverse Glycoside Ligands by using a Two-faced Binding Pocket". Scientific Reports. 7 (1). doi:10.1038/s41598-017-07256-y. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5552880. PMID 28798468.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) - ^ Jeruzal-Świątecka, Joanna; Fendler, Wojciech; Pietruszewska, Wioletta (2020-07-21). "Clinical Role of Extraoral Bitter Taste Receptors". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 21 (14): 5156. doi:10.3390/ijms21145156. ISSN 1422-0067.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ "hTAS2R16 - Taste receptor type 2 member 16".
- ^ Itoigawa, Akihiro; Hayakawa, Takashi; Suzuki-Hashido, Nami; Imai, Hiroo (2019-06-12). "A natural point mutation in the bitter taste receptor TAS2R16 causes inverse agonism of arbutin in lemur gustation". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 286 (1904): 20190884. doi:10.1098/rspb.2019.0884. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 6571456. PMID 31161904.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) - ^ a b Kurshed, Ali Abbas Mohammad; Ádány, Róza; Diószegi, Judit (2022-12-15). "The Impact of Taste Preference-Related Gene Polymorphisms on Alcohol Consumption Behavior: A Systematic Review". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 23 (24): 15989. doi:10.3390/ijms232415989. ISSN 1422-0067.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Yuan, Gaoxiang; Yan, Huixuan; Liu, Ying; Ding, Xuhong; Qi, Xinglei; Qu, Kaixing; Li, Fuqiang; Zhang, Jicai; Quji, Suolang; Lei, Chuzhao; Huang, Bizhi; Zeng, Lulan (2022-01-01). "TAS2R16 introgression from banteng into indigenous Chinese cattle". Animal Biotechnology: 1–5. doi:10.1080/10495398.2021.2018334. ISSN 1049-5398.
- ^ Hinrichs, Anthony L.; Wang, Jen C.; Bufe, Bernd; Kwon, Jennifer M.; Budde, John; Allen, Rebecca; Bertelsen, Sarah; Evans, Whitney; Dick, Danielle; Rice, John; Foroud, Tatiana; Nurnberger, John; Tischfield, Jay A.; Kuperman, Samuel; Crowe, Raymond (2006). "Functional Variant in a Bitter-Taste Receptor (hTAS2R16) Influences Risk of Alcohol Dependence". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 78 (1): 103–111. doi:10.1086/499253. PMC 1380207. PMID 16385453.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) - ^ Campa, Daniele; De Rango, Francesco; Carrai, Maura; Crocco, Paolina; Montesanto, Alberto; Canzian, Federico; Rose, Giuseppina; Rizzato, Cosmeri; Passarino, Giuseppe; Barale, Roberto (2012-11-02). Glendinning, John I. (ed.). "Bitter Taste Receptor Polymorphisms and Human Aging". PLoS ONE. 7 (11): e45232. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0045232. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3487725. PMID 23133589.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Hinrichs AL, Wang JC, Bufe B, Kwon JM, Budde J, Allen R, et al. (January 2006). "Functional variant in a bitter-taste receptor (hTAS2R16) influences risk of alcohol dependence". American Journal of Human Genetics. 78 (1): 103–111. doi:10.1086/499253. PMC 1380207. PMID 16385453.
- ^ Campbell MC, Ranciaro A, Zinshteyn D, Rawlings-Goss R, Hirbo J, Thompson S, et al. (February 2014). "Origin and differential selection of allelic variation at TAS2R16 associated with salicin bitter taste sensitivity in Africa". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 31 (2): 288–302. doi:10.1093/molbev/mst211. PMC 3907056. PMID 24177185.
Further reading
- Kinnamon SC (March 2000). "A plethora of taste receptors". Neuron. 25 (3): 507–510. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(00)81054-5. PMID 10774719.
- Margolskee RF (January 2002). "Molecular mechanisms of bitter and sweet taste transduction". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 277 (1): 1–4. doi:10.1074/jbc.R100054200. PMID 11696554.
- Montmayeur JP, Matsunami H (August 2002). "Receptors for bitter and sweet taste". Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 12 (4): 366–371. doi:10.1016/S0959-4388(02)00345-8. PMID 12139982. S2CID 37807140.
- Adler E, Hoon MA, Mueller KL, Chandrashekar J, Ryba NJ, Zuker CS (March 2000). "A novel family of mammalian taste receptors". Cell. 100 (6): 693–702. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80705-9. PMID 10761934. S2CID 14604586.
- Chandrashekar J, Mueller KL, Hoon MA, Adler E, Feng L, Guo W, et al. (March 2000). "T2Rs function as bitter taste receptors". Cell. 100 (6): 703–711. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80706-0. PMID 10761935. S2CID 7293493.
- Firestein S (April 2000). "The good taste of genomics". Nature. 404 (6778): 552–553. doi:10.1038/35007167. PMID 10766221. S2CID 35741332.
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External links
- TAS2R16+protein,+human at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
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