Jump to content

Kerala

Edit links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 198.204.74.254 (talk) at 16:56, 10 February 2010 (→Notes). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Kerala
Kerala
Template:Kerala in Malayalam
state
Nickname: 
God's Own Country
Map
 • Rank21st
Population
 (2001)
 • Total31,841,374
 • Rank12th
Websitekerala.gov.in

Kerala (Malayalam: Template:Kerala in Malayalam?; Kēraḷam) is a state in south India. It was created on 1 November 1956, with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act bringing together the areas where Malayalam is the dominant language. The state has an area of 38,863 sq km and is bordered by Karnataka to the north, Tamil Nadu to the south and the east and the Arabian sea towards the west. Thiruvananthapuram is the capital of Kerala. Kochi and Kozhikode are the other major cities.

A 3rd-century-BC rock inscription by emperor Asoka the Great attests to a Keralaputra.[3] Around 1 BC the region was ruled by the Chera Dynasty, which traded with the Greeks, Romans and Arabs. The Tamil Chera dynasty, Ays and the Pandyan Empire were the traditional rulers of Kerala whose patriarchal dynasties ruled until the 14th century.[4][5] The Chera Kingdom were Patriarchal in descendency. The Cheras collapsed after repeated attacks from the neighbouring Chola and Rashtrakuta kingdoms. Feudal Namboothiri Brahmin and Nair city-states subsequently gained control of the region.[6] Kolla Varsham or Malayalam Era, which is assumed to have been established by King Udaya Marthanda Varma in 825 AD, serves as the official calendar of Kerala.[7] Early contact with Europeans gave way to struggles between colonial and native interests. After independence, Kerala state was created in 1956 from the former state of Travancore-Cochin, Malabar district of Madras State, and Kasaragod taluk of Dakshina Kannada.[8]

Kerala is a popular tourist destination famous for its backwaters, Ayurvedic treatments [9] and tropical greenery. Kerala has a higher Human Development Index than all other states in India.[10][11] The state has a literacy rate of 91 percent,[2] the highest in India. A survey conducted in 2005 by Transparency International ranked Kerala as the least corrupt state in the country.[12] Kerala has witnessed significant migration of its people, especially to the Persian Gulf countries, starting with the Kerala Gulf boom, and is uniquely dependent on remittances from its large Malayali expatriate community.[13][14][15]

Etymology

The name Kerala has an uncertain etymology. Keralam may stem from an imperfect Malayalam portmanteau fusing kera ("coconut tree") and alam ("land" or "location").[16]: 122  Kerala may represent the Classical Tamil chera-alam ("declivity of a hill or a mountain slope")[17] or chera alam ("Land of the Cheras").[18]: 2  Natives of Kerala, known as Malayalis or Keralites, refer to their land as Keralam.[19]

History

Main article: History of Kerala
A Muniyara, dolmens erected by Neolithic tribesmen, in Marayoor.

It is unknown if the region was inhabited during Neolithic times. Dolmens belonging to this period have been unearthed from Idukki district. The Edakkal Caves in Wayanad has inscriptions dating back to the stone age[20].

Kerala and Tamil Nadu once shared a common language, ethnicity and culture; this common area was known as Tamilakam.[21] The first distinct reference to Kerala is from a 3rd-century-BCE rock inscription by emperor Asoka the Great which attests to a Keralaputra.[22]

According to legend, Parasurama, an avatar of Mahavishnu, threwing his battle axe into the sea; from those waters, Kerala arose.[23]

Parasurama, surrounded by settlers, commanding Varuna to part the seas and reveal Kerala.

During the first century BCE the region was ruled by the Chera Dynasty established by the Dravidian tribe Villavar, whose mother tongue and court language was the ancient Tamil.[24]. The capital of Cheras was Vanchi. The southern Kerala was ruled by the Pandyan Kingdom with their capital at Nelcynda.[4][5] The merchants from China, West Asia and Roman Empire had trade links with Cheras.The Sangam literature from the period has descriptions of the Roman ships coming to Muziris, laden with gold as exchange for pepper.[25] Kerala is represented as the eastern tip of the known world in Tabula Peutingeriana, the only known surviving map of the Roman cursus publicus.[26] : 192–195, 303–307  The west Asian-semitic [27] Jewish, Christian, and Muslim immigrants[27] established Nasrani Mappila, Juda Mappila and Muslim Mappila communities.[27][28] The Jews first arrived in Kerala in 573 BCE.[29][30] The works of scholars and Eastern Christian writings state that Thomas the Apostle visited Muziris in Kerala in 52 CE to proselytize amongst Kerala's Jewish settlements, however this is widely disputed due to lack of credible historical evidence.[31][32][33][34]. Muslim merchants led by Malik ibn Dinar settled in Kerala by the 8th century CE and introduced Islam.

The Later Chera Kingdom (c. 800–1102), also called the Kulasekhara dynasty, was founded by Kulasekhara Alwar who is regarded as a Vaishnavaite saint. Ay kings ruled southern Kerala. [citation needed] A Keralite identity, distinct from the Tamils became linguistically separate during this period.[35] The Kulasekhara dynasty came to an end by twelfth century, weakened due to the invasions by Pandyas and Cholas.[25] In the absence of a strong central power, the state became divided under small principalities governed by feudal rulers. The kingdoms of Kochi, Venad and Calicut emerged powerful.

After Vasco Da Gama's arrival in Kozhikode in 1498, the Portuguese gained control of the lucrative pepper trade.[36][37][38] In 1502, Gama signed a treaty for concession for trading rights with Samoothiri, the local ruler of Calicut over the objections of Arab merchants. On 25 March 1505, Francisco de Almeida was appointed the Viceroy of India with his headquarters at Kochi. In 1506, the Samoothiri's fleet was defeated in a sea battle in the Battle of Cannanore by the Portuguese. The Portuguese established forts at Kannur, Cochin and Kollam {{citation}}: Empty citation (help).

Dutch commander De Lannoy surrenders to Marthanda Varma at the Battle of Colachel. Depiction at Padmanabhapuram Palace

The Dutch East India Company took advantage of the conflicts between Kozhikode and Kochi and ousted the Portuguese to gain control of the trade. However, the Dutch were defeated by Marthanda Varma of the Travancore Royal Family at the Battle of Colachel in 1741. In 1766, Hyder Ali, the ruler of Mysore invaded northern Kerala. In the late 18th century, Tipu Sultan, Ali’s son and successor, launched campaigns against the expanding British East India Company, resulting in two of the four Anglo-Mysore Wars. He ultimately ceded Malabar District and South Kanara to the Company in the 1790s. The Company forged tributary alliances with Kochi in 1791 and Travancore in 1795. Malabar and South Kanara became part of the Madras Presidency.[39]

A nineteenth-century map of Madras Province in British India. Kerala was formed by merging Malabar, Cochin, Travancore and the South Kanara district

Kerala was comparatively peaceful under the British Raj; only sporadic revolts such as the 1946 Punnapra-Vayalar uprising and the Dewan of Travancore Velayudan Thampi Dalava, Kozhikode navarch Kunjali Marakkar, and Pazhassi Raja, among others, vied for greater autonomy or independence.[40] Many actions, spurred by such leaders as Vaikunda Swami,[41] Sree Narayana Guru and Chattampi Swamikal, instead protested such conditions as untouchability; notable was the 1924 Vaikom Satyagraham. In 1936, Chitra Thirunal Bala Rama Varma of Travancore issued the Temple Entry Proclamation that opened Hindu temples to all castes; Cochin and Malabar soon did likewise. The 1921 Moplah Rebellion involved Mappila Muslims rioting against Zamindari system and the British Raj.[42]

After India gained its independence in 1947, Travancore and Cochin were merged to form Travancore-Cochin on 1 July 1949. On 1 January 1950 (Republic Day), Travancore-Cochin was recognised as a state. The Madras Presidency was organised to form Madras State in 1947. On November 1, 1956, the state of Kerala was formed by the States Reorganisation Act merging the Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern taluks, which were merged with Tamil Nadu), and the taluk of Kasargod, South Kanara.[43] Elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly were held in 1957; this resulted in the formation of a communist-led government[43] headed by E.M.S. Namboodiripad. Many Indians consider this the first democratically elected communist government[44] in the world; however, both San Marino (in 1948) and Guyana (in 1953) had elected communists to power years earlier. Radical reforms introduced by the E. M. S. Namboodiripad government in favour of farmers and labourers helped change, to a great extent, the iniquitous social order that had prevailed in Kerala for centuries.

Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Kerala
See also: Climate of India
Munnar hill station, Kerala

Kerala is wedged between the Laccadive Sea and the Western Ghats. Lying between north latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and east longitudes 74°52' and 72°22',[45] Kerala experiences the humid equatorial tropic climate. The state has a coast of length 580 km (360 miles)[citation needed] and the width of the state varies between 35 and 120 km (22–75 miles). Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands (rugged and cool mountainous terrain), the central midlands (rolling hills), and the western lowlands (coastal plains). Located at the extreme southern tip of the Indian subcontinent, Kerala lies near the centre of the Indian tectonic plate; hence, most of the state is subject to comparatively little seismic and volcanic activity.[46] Pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala’s terrain.

Eastern Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of the Western Ghats' rain shadow. Forty-one of Kerala’s west-flowing rivers, and three of its east-flowing ones originate in this region. The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad, where the Palakkad Gap breaks through to provide access to the rest of India. The Western Ghats rises on average to 1,500 m (4920 ft) above sea level, while the highest peaks may reach to 2,500 m (8200 ft). Anamudi is the highest peak at an elevation of 2,695 metres (8,130 ft). Just west of the mountains lie the midland plains comprising central Kerala, dominated by rolling hills and valleys.[45] Generally ranging between elevations of 250–1,000 m (820–3300 ft), the eastern portions of the Nilgiri and Palni Hills include such formations as Agastyamala and Anamala.

Kerala’s western coastal belt is relatively flat, and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected brackish canals, lakes, estuaries, and rivers known as the Kerala Backwaters. Lake Vembanad—Kerala’s largest body of water—dominates the Backwaters; it lies between Alappuzha and Kochi and is more than 200 km² in area. Around 8% of India's waterways (measured by length) are found in Kerala.[47] The most important of Kerala’s forty-four rivers include the Periyar (244 km), the Bharathapuzha (209 km), the Pamba (176 km), the Chaliyar (169 km), the Kadalundipuzha (130 km), the Valapattanam (129 km) and the Achankovil (128 km). The average length of the rivers of Kerala is 64 km. Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rains.[45] These conditions result in the nearly year-round water logging of such western regions as Kuttanad, 500 km² of which lies below sea level. As Kerala's rivers are small and lack deltas, they are more prone to environmental factors. The rivers also face problems such as sand mining and pollution.[48] The state experiences several natural hazards such as landslides, floods, lightning and droughts. The state was also affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami.

A catastrophic flood occurred in Kerala in 1341 CE that drastically modified the terrain and consequently affected the history.[49]. The flood resulted in changing the course of the river Periyar, recession of Arabian Sea by several miles downwards making the Kuttanad region cultivable, closure of the Muziris (Kodungalloor) harbour and creation of a new harbour at Kochi[50][51][52].

With 120–140 rainy days per year, Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon.[53]: 80  In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. Kerala's rainfall averages 3,107 mm annually. Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm; the mountains of eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000 mm of orographic precipitation, the highest in the state.

During summer, Kerala is prone to gale force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level.[54]: 26, 46, 52  The mean daily temperatures range from 19.8 °C to 36.7 °C.[45] Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0–27.5 °C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the eastern highlands.[54]: 65 

Flora and fauna

Cassia Fistula, (Malayalam: കണിക്കൊന്ന, Kani Konna), is the state flower of Kerala.
Main article: Flora and fauna of Kerala

Much of Kerala's notable biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve in the eastern hills. Almost a fourth of India's 10,000 plant species are found in the state. Among the almost 4,000 flowering plant species (1,272 of which are endemic to Kerala and 159 threatened) are 900 species of highly sought medicinal plants.[55][56]: 11 

Its 9,400 km² of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km²), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km² and 100 km², respectively), and montane subtropical and temperate (shola) forests (highest elevations—100 km²). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested.[56]: 12  Two of the world’s Ramsar Convention listed wetlands—Lake Sasthamkotta and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4 km² of the vast Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century,[57]: 6–7  much of the remaining forest cover is now protected from clearfelling. Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: 102 species of mammals (56 of which are endemic), 476 species of birds, 202 species of freshwater fishes, 169 species of reptiles (139 of them endemic), and 89 species of amphibians (86 endemic).[55] These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides, salinization, and resource extraction.[58]

Eastern Kerala’s windward mountains shelter tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests, which are common in the Western Ghats. Here, sonokeling (Dalbergia latifolia), anjili, mullumurikku (Erythrina), and Cassia number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include bamboo, wild black pepper, wild cardamom, the calamus rattan palm (a type of climbing palm), and aromatic vetiver grass (Vetiveria zizanioides).[56]: 12  Living among them are such fauna as Indian Elephant (Elephas maximus indicus), Bengal Tiger, Indian Leopard (Panthera pardus fusca), Nilgiri Tahr, Common Palm Civet, and Grizzled Giant Squirrel.[56]: 12, 174–175  Reptiles include the King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), viper, python, and Mugger Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) . Kerala's birds are legion—Peafowl, the Great Hornbill, Indian Grey Hornbill, Indian Cormorant, and Jungle Myna are several emblematic species. In lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as kadu (stinging catfish) and Choottachi (Orange chromide—Etroplus maculatus; valued as an aquarium specimen) are found.[56]: 163–165 

Subdivisions

Main articles: Districts of Kerala and Corporations, Municipalities and Taluks of Kerala
Population density map of Kerala graded from darkest shading (most dense) to lightest (least dense)

Kerala's fourteen districts are distributed among Kerala's six historical regions: North Malabar (Far-north Kerala), Malabar (northern Kerala), Kochi (central Kerala), Northern Travancore, Central Travancore (southern Kerala) and Southern Travancore (Far-south Kerala). Kerala's modern-day districts (listed in order from north to south) correspond to them as follows:

Kerala's 14 revenue districts are subdivided into 62 taluks, 1453 revenue villages and 1007 Gram panchayats.

Mahé, a part of the Indian union territory of Puducherry (Pondicherry), is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches. Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum) is the state capital and most populous city.[59] Kochi is the most populous urban agglomeration[60] and the major port city in Kerala. Kozhikode, Kannur, Thrissur, Palakkad , and Kollam are the other major commercial centers of the state. Kannur district is the most urbanised district in Kerala, with more than 50% of its residents living in urban areas.[61] The High Court of Kerala is located at Ernakulam. Kerala's districts, which serve as the administrative regions for taxation purposes, are further subdivided into 63 taluks; these have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records.

Major cities in Kerala
(2001 Census of India estimate)[62]
Rank City\Town District Population

Thiruvananthapuram
Thiruvananthapuram



Kochi
Kochi

01 Thiruvananthapuram Thiruvananthapuram 744,983
02 Kochi Ernakulam 595,575
03 Kozhikode Kozhikode 436,556
04 Kollam Kollam 361,029
05 Thrissur Thrissur 317,526
06 Alappuzha Alappuzha 187,495
07 Palakkad Palakkad 130,767
08 Thalassery Kannur 99,387
09 Ponnani Malappuram 87,495
10 Manjeri Malappuram 83,024

Government

Main article: Government of Kerala

Template:Kerala symbols Kerala is governed via a parliamentary system of representative democracy; universal suffrage is granted to state residents. There are three branches of government. The unicameral legislature, the Kerala Legislative Assembly, comprises elected members and special office bearers (the Speaker and Deputy Speaker) elected by the members from among themselves. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker and in his absence by the Deputy Speaker[63]. Kerala has 140 Assembly constituencies[64]. The state sends 20 members to the Lok Sabha and 9 to the Rajya Sabha, the Indian Parliament's upper house[65].

The Governor of Kerala is the constitutional head of state, and is appointed by the President of India[66]. The executive authority is headed by the Chief Minister of Kerala, who is the de facto head of state and is vested with extensive executive powers; the Legislative Assembly's majority party leader is appointed to this position by the Governor. The Council of Ministers, which answers to the Legislative Assembly, has its members appointed by the Governor on advice of the Chief Minister.

The judiciary comprises the Kerala High Court (including a Chief Justice combined with 26 permanent and two additional (pro tempore) justices) and a system of lower courts. The High Court of Kerala is the apex court for the state; it also hears cases from the Union Territory of Lakshadweep. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs.[67]

The Kerala Legislative Assembly Building in Thiruvananthapuram

The state's 2005–2006 budget was 219 billion INR.[68] The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to 111,248 million INR in 2005, up from 63,599 million in 2000. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala as assessed by the Indian Finance Commissions reached 10,809 million INR in 2005, nearly double the 6,847 million INR revenues of 2000.[69] However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to gross state domestic product (GSDP) has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, impacting social services.[70]

The Legislature comprises the Governor of Kerala appointed by the President of India and the Kerala Legislative Assembly. The Governor has the power to summon and prorogue the Assembly or to dissolve the same. The Members of the Legislative Assembly are directly elected once in 5 years.[71] Kerala hosts two major political alliances: the United Democratic Front (UDF—led by the Indian National Congress)and the Left Democratic Front (LDF—led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)). At present, the LDF is the ruling coalition in government; V.S. Achuthanandan of the CPI(M) is the Chief Minister of Kerala and Oommen Chandy of the UDF is the Chief Opposition leader. Strikes, protests and marches are ubiquitous in Kerala due to the comparatively strong presence of labour unions.[72][73]

Economy

The interior of a building in the Technopark, at Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum). 70% of the state's IT exports are from Technopark
Main article: Economy of Kerala
See also: Category:Industries based in Kerala

Since independence, Kerala was managed as a democratic socialist welfare economy. Since the 1990s, liberalisation of the mixed economy allowed onerous Licence Raj restrictions against capitalism and foreign direct investment to be lightened, leading to economic expansion and job creation. In fiscal year 2007-2008, nominal gross state domestic product (GSDP) was ₹162,414.79 crore (US$19 billion).[74] Recent GSDP growth (9.2% in 2004–2005 and 7.4% in 2003–2004) has been robust compared to historical averages (2.3% annually in the 1980s and between 5.1%[75]: 8  and 5.99%[76] in the 1990s).[75]: 8  The state clocked 8.93% growth in enterprises from 1998 to 2005 compared with 4.80% nationally.[77] Relatively few such enterprises are major corporations or manufacturers.[54]: 49  Per-capita GSDP is ₹11,819 (US$140),[78] above the Indian average and far below the world average.[75]: 8  Kerala's Human Development Index rating is the highest in India.[79] This apparently paradoxical "Kerala phenomenon" or "Kerala model of development" of high human and low economic development results from the strong service sector.[54]: 48 [80]: 1  Kerala's economy depends on emigrants working in foreign countries (mainly in the Persian Gulf countries such as United Arab Emirates or Saudi Arabia) and remittances annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP.[13][14][15]

Rural women processing coir threads

The service sector (including tourism, public administration, banking and finance, transportation, and communications—63.8% of GSDP in 2002–2003) and the agricultural and fishing industries (together 17.2% of GSDP) dominate the economy.[76][81] Nearly half of Kerala's people are dependent on agriculture alone for income.[82] Some 600 varieties[56]: 5  of rice (Kerala's most important staple food and cereal crop)[83]: 5  are harvested from 3105.21 km² (a decline from 5883.4 km² in 1990)[83]: 5  of paddy fields; 688,859 tonnes are produced per annum.[82] Other key crops include coconut (899,198 ha), tea, coffee (23% of Indian production,[84]: 13  or 57,000 tonnes[84]: 6–7 ), rubber, cashews, and spices—including pepper, cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg. Around 1.050 million fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes (1999–2000 estimate); 222 fishing villages are strung along the 590 km coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland.

Traditional industries manufacturing such items as coir, handlooms, and handicrafts employ around one million people. Around 180,000 small-scale industries employ around 909,859 Keralites; 511 medium and large scale manufacturing firms are located in Kerala. A small mining sector (0.3% of GSDP)[81] involves extraction of ilmenite, kaolin, bauxite, silica, quartz, rutile, zircon, and sillimanite.[82] Home gardens and animal husbandry also provide work for hundreds of thousands of people. Other major sectors are tourism, manufacturing, and business process outsourcing. As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches; each branch served 10,000 persons, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states.[85] Unemployment in 2007 was estimated at 9.4%;[86] underemployment, low employability of youths, and a 13.5% female participation rate are chronic issues.[87]: 5, 13 [88] Poverty rate figures range from 12.71%[89] to as high as 36%.[90] More than 45,000 residents live in slum conditions.[91]

The state treasury has suffered loss of thousands of millions of rupees thanks to the state staging over 100 hartals annually in recent times. A total of 223 hartals were observed in 2006, resulting in a revenue loss of over Rs 2000 crore.[92]

Transport

See also: Roads in Kerala
Trivandrum Central Railway Station Building

Kerala has Template:Km to mi of roads (4.2% of India's total). This translates to about Template:Km to mi of road per thousand population, compared to an all India average of Template:Km to mi. Virtually all of Kerala's villages are connected by road. Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Kerala's road density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population density. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest.[93] India's national highway network includes a Kerala-wide total of Template:Km to mi, which is 2.6% of the national total. There are eight designated national highways in the state. The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the GIS-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the Template:Km to mi of roadways that compose the state highways system; it also oversees major district roads.[94][95] Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through two national highways, NH 47, and NH 17 and eastern hills are accessible through proposed Hill Highway (Kerala).

Cochin International Airport

The state has three major international airports at Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi, and Kozhikode, that link the state with the rest of the nation and the world. The Cochin International Airport (COK) was the first Indian airport incorporated as a public limited company and is funded by nearly 10,000 Non Resident Indians from 30 countries.[96] A fourth international airport is proposed at Kannur.[97]

The backwaters traversing the state are an important mode of inland navigation. National Waterway 3 traverse through the state.

The Indian Railways' Southern Railway line runs throughout the state, connecting all major towns and cities except those in the highland districts of Idukki and Wayanad. Kerala's major railway stations are Alappuzha, Aluva, Chengannur, Ernakulam Junction, Kannur, Kasaragod, Kollam Junction, Kottayam, Kozhikode, Palakkad Junction, Shornur Junction, Thalassery, Thrissur Junction, Tirur, Trivandrum Central and Vadakara.

Demographics

See also: Religions of Kerala
Main article: Demographics of Kerala

Template:IndiaCensusPop

The 31.8 million[98] Keralites are predominantly of Malayali ethnicity, while the rest is mostly made up of Jewish and Arab elements in both culture and ancestry. Kerala's 321,000 indigenous tribal Adivasis, 1.10% of the population, are concentrated in the east.[99]: 10–12  Malayalam is Kerala's official language; Tamil, Tulu, Kannada and various Adivasi (Tribal) languages are also spoken by ethnic minorities especially in the south-western region.

A fisherman in rural Kerala

Kerala is home to 3.44% of India's people; at 819 persons per km², its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the rest of India, which is at a population density of 325 persons per km².[100] Kerala's rate of population growth is India's lowest,[101] and Kerala's decadal growth(9.42% in 2001) is less than half the all-India average of 21.34%.[102] Whereas Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6 million people to reach 29.1 million residents in 1991, the population stood at less than 32 million by 2001. Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.[45]

File:Sari-and-Mundu.png
Traditional dress of Kerala: a Malayali woman in a set-sari (tradition being wearing a mundum neriyathum) and a Malayali man wearing a mundu with a shirt (tradition being not wearing a shirt).

Women compose 51.42% of the population.[103]: 26  Kerala's principal religions are Hinduism (56.2%), Islam (24.70%), and Christianity (19.00%).[104] In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little sectarianism.[105]

According to 2001 Census of India figures, 56 percent of Kerala residents are Hindus, 24 percent are Muslims, 19 percent are Christians and the remaining one percent follows other religions.[104] The major Hindu castes are Nambudiri, Nairs, Ezhavas and Dalits. Notably, steps taken by many progressive and tolerant Hindu kings[106] over the years and movements like Narayana Guru’s movement for social reform and tolerance helped to establish Kerala as one of the most socially progressive states in India. The Abrahamic religions attest to Kerala's prominence as a major trade centre. Islam and Judaism arrived in Kerala through Arab traders.[107] A significant Jewish community existed in Kerala until the 20th century when most of them migrated to Israel leaving only a handful of families.[108] The Paradesi Synagogue at Kochi is the oldest synagogue in the Commonwealth. Christianity reached the shores of Kerala in 52 CE with the arrival of St Thomas, one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ[109][110][111][112][113] The major Christian denominations are Catholic, Oriental Orthodox and Protestant.

Religion in Kerala[104]
Religion Percent
Hinduism
 
 56.2%
Islam
 
 24.7%
Christianity
 
 19.0%
Others
 
 1.1%

Jainism has a considerable following in the Wayanad district. Buddhism was dominant at the time of Ashoka the Great but vanished by the 8th century CE.[114]

Kerala has witnessed significant migration of its people, especially to the Persian Gulf countries, starting with the Kerala Gulf boom, and is uniquely dependent on remittances from its large Malayali expatriate community.[13][14][15]

Kerala's society is less patriarchal than the rest of the Third World.[115]: 18–19  Kerala government states gender relations are among the most equitable in India and the Third World[need quotation to verify][116], despite discrepancies among low caste men and women.[115]: 1  Certain Hindu communities such as the Nairs, some Ezhavas and the Muslims around North Malabar used to follow a traditional matrilineal system known as marumakkathayam, although this practice ended in the years after Indian independence. Other Muslims, Christians, and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiris and the Ezhavas follow makkathayam, a patrilineal system.[117] Owing to the former matrilineal system, women in Kerala enjoy a high social status.[118]

Kerala's human development indices— primary level education, health care and elimination of poverty—are among the best in India. According to a 2005-2006 national survey, Kerala has one of the highest literacy rates (97.0%) among Indian states[2] and life expectancy (73 years) was among the highest in India in 2001.[119] Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 69% (1970–1971) to 19% (1993–1994); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 36% between the 1970s and 1980s.[120] By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6% respectively.[121] These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.[122][123] This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.[54][79]: 48 

Health

Kerala's healthcare system has garnered international acclaim. The state has a very good medical facility. The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the World Health Organization designated Kerala the world's first "baby-friendly state" because of its effective promotion of breast-feeding over formulas.[124] For example, more than 95% of Keralite births are hospital-delivered.[125]: 6  Aside from ayurveda (both elite and popular forms),[126]: 13  siddha, and unani, many endangered and endemic modes of traditional medicine, including kalari, marmachikitsa,[126]: 17  and vishavaidyam, are practiced. These propagate via gurukula discipleship,,[126]: 5–6  and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and supernatural treatments,[126]: 15  and are partly responsible for drawing increasing numbers of medical tourists.

A steadily aging population (11.2% of Keralites are over age 60[79]) and low birthrate[127] (18 per 1,000)[128] make Kerala one of the few regions of the Third World to have undergone the "demographic transition" characteristic of such developed nations as Canada, Japan, and Norway.[80]: 1  In 1991, Kerala's total fertility rate (children born per women) was the lowest in India. Hindus had a TFR of 1.66, Christians 1.78, and Muslims 2.97.[129] Kerala's female-to-male ratio (1.058) is significantly higher than that of the rest of India.[80][119]: 2  sub-replacement fertility level and infant mortality rate is lower compared to other states (estimated at 12[54][128]: 49  to 14[130]: 5  deaths per 1,000 live births).

However, Kerala's morbidity rate is higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural Keralites) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding all India figures are 55 and 54 per 1,000, respectively.[130]: 5  Kerala's 13.3% prevalence of low birth weight is substantially higher than that of First World nations.[128] Outbreaks of water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis, and typhoid among the more than 50% of Keralites who rely on 3 million water wells is a problem worsened by the widespread lack of sewers.[131]: 5–7 

Education

Main article: Education in Kerala
Children lining up for school in Kochi

The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics was founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama in Kerala, which included among its members: Parameshvara, Neelakanta Somayaji, Jyeshtadeva, Achyuta Pisharati, Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri and Achyuta Panikkar. The school flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries and the original discoveries of the school seems to have ended with Narayana Bhattathiri (1559–1632). In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts. Their most important results—series expansion for trigonometric functions—were described in Sanskrit verse in a book by Neelakanta called Tantrasangraha.

Schools and colleges are run by the government, private trusts, or individuals. Each school is affiliated with either the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), or the Kerala State Education Board. English is the language of instruction in most private schools, while government run schools offer English or Malayalam. After 10 years of secondary schooling, students typically enroll at Higher Secondary School in one of the three streams—liberal arts, commerce or science. Upon completing the required coursework, students can enroll in general or professional degree programmes. Kerala topped the Education Development Index (EDI) among 21 major states in India in year 2006-2007.[132]

The University of Kerala's administrative building in Thiruvananthapuram.

Thiruvananthapuram, one of the state's major academic hubs, hosts the University of Kerala and several professional education colleges including fifteen engineering colleges, three medical colleges including Trivandrum Medical College, three Ayurveda colleges, two colleges of homeopathy, six other medical colleges, and several law colleges.[133] The College of Engineering, Trivandrum is one of the prominent engineering institutions in the state. The Asian School of Business and IIITM-K are two of the other premier management study institutions in the city, both situated inside Technopark. The Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology(IIST), first of its kind in India, and the Indian Institute of Science, Education and Research(IISER) are also situated here.

Other research centres in the state capital Thiruvananthapuram includes Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology, Sree Chitra Thirunal Institute of Medical Sciences and Technology (SCTIMST), Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute, Kerala Fisheries Research Institute, ER&DC – CDAC, Kerala Highway Research Institute, CSIR – National Institute of Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Free Software Foundation(FSF), Centre for Earth Science Studies (CESS), Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI), The Oriental Research Institute & Manuscripts Library, etc.

Kozhikode is home to two of the premier educational institutions of India: the IIMK, one of the seven Indian Institutes of Management, and the National Institute of Technology Calicut (NITC). Kozhikode also houses the Calicut Medical College.

Kochi is home to Cochin University of Science and Technology. The National University of Advanced Legal Studies and Government Law College at Ernakulam are the centres of Law Education. Educational centres for oceanic studies such as Central Institute of Fisheries Nautical and Engineering Training and the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute are based here. Centre of Excellence in Lasers and Optoelectronic Sciences which functions under CUSAT functions here.

Culture

Keralite elephants, caparisoned, during the Sree Poornathrayesa Temple festival
A Kathakali artist
A mohiniaattam performance
File:House in Kerala.jpg
A typical Kerala-style house with a thulasi thara, a platform for tulasi, in the front.
Main articles: Arts of Kerala and Culture of Kerala

Kerala's culture is derived from both a Tamil-heritage region known as Tamilakam and southern coastal Karnataka. Later, Kerala's culture was elaborated upon through centuries of contact with neighboring and overseas cultures.[134] Native performing arts include koodiyattom (a 2000 year old Sanskrit theatre tradition, officially recognised by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity[135]), kathakali—from katha ("story") and kali ("performance")—and its offshoot Kerala natanam, Kaliyattam -(North Malabar special), koothu (akin to stand-up comedy), mohiniaattam ("dance of the enchantress"), Theyyam, thullal NS padayani.

Other forms of art are more religious or tribal in nature. These include chavittu nadakom, oppana (originally from Malabar), which combines dance, rhythmic hand clapping, and ishal vocalisations. However, many of these art forms largely play to tourists or at youth festivals, and are not as popular among most ordinary Keralites. These people look to more contemporary art and performance styles, including those employing mimicry and parody.

Kerala's music also has ancient roots. Carnatic music dominates Keralite traditional music. This was the result of Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma's popularisation of the genre in the 19th century.[136][137] Raga-based renditions known as sopanam accompany kathakali performances. Melam (including the paandi and panchari variants) is a more percussive style of music; it is performed at Kshetram centered festivals using the chenda. Melam ensembles comprise up to 150 musicians, and performances may last up to four hours. Panchavadyam is a different form of percussion ensemble, in which up to 100 artists use five types of percussion instrument. Kerala has various styles of folk and tribal music. The popular music of Kerala is dominated by the filmi music of Indian cinema. Kerala's visual arts range from traditional murals to the works of Raja Ravi Varma, the state's most renowned painter.

Kerala has its own Malayalam calendar, which is used to plan agricultural and religious activities. Kerala's cuisine is typically served as a sadhya (feast) on green banana leaves. Such dishes as idli, payasam, pulisherry, puttucuddla, puzhukku, rasam, and sambar are typical. Keralites—both men and women alike—traditionally don flowing and unstitched garments. These include the mundu, a loose piece of cloth wrapped around men's waists. Women typically wear the sari, a long and elaborately wrapped banner of cloth, wearable in various styles. Presently the North Indian dresses such as Salwar Kameez has also become very popular amongst women in Kerala.

Elephants are an integral part of daily life in Kerala. These Indian elephants are loved, revered, groomed and given a prestigious place in the state's culture. They are often referred to as the 'sons of the sahya.' The ana (elephant) is the state animal of Kerala and is featured on the emblem of the Government of Kerala.

The predominant language spoken in Kerala is Malayalam. Malayalam literature is medieval in origin and includes such figures as the 14th century Niranam poets (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar), and the 17th century poet Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan whose works mark the dawn of both modern Malayalam language and indigenous Keralite poetry. The "triumvirate of poets" (Kavithrayam), Kumaran Asan, Vallathol Narayana Menon, and Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer, are recognised for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics, and towards a more lyrical mode.

In the second half of the 20th century, Jnanpith awardees like G. Sankara Kurup, S. K. Pottekkatt, Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai and M. T. Vasudevan Nair have made valuable contributions to the Malayalam literature. Later, such Keralite writers as O. V. Vijayan, Kamaladas, M. Mukundan, and Booker Prize winner Arundhati Roy, whose 1996 semi-autobiographical bestseller[138] The God of Small Things is set in the Kottayam town of Ayemenem, have gained international recognition.[139][140]

Media

Main article: Media in Kerala

Dozens of newspapers are published in Kerala, in nine major languages,[141] but principally Malayalam and English. The most widely circulating Malayalam-language newspapers include Mathrubhumi, Malayala Manorama, Deepika, Kerala Kaumudi, Madhyamam and Deshabhimani. Among major Malayalam periodicals are India Today Malayalam,Madhyamam weekly,Grihalakshmi, Veedu, Vanitha, Chithrabhumi, Kanyaka and Bhashaposhini.

Doordarshan is the state-owned television broadcaster. Multi system operators provide a mix of Malayalam, English and international channels via cable television. There are 17 Malayalam channels which makes the countries maximum number in regional language.[citation needed] Asianet, Indiavision, Manorama News, JaiHind TV, Amrita TV, Surya TV and Kairali TV are among the Malayalam-language channels that compete with the major national channels. All India Radio, the national radio service, reaches much of Kerala via its Thiruvananthapuram, Thrissur and Alappuzha, Malayalam-language broadcasters. Television programmes such as serials, reality shows and the Internet have become a major source of entertainment and information for the people in Kerala. A Malayalam version of Google News was launched in September 2008.[142] Regardless, Keralites maintain high rates of newspaper and magazine subscriptions, with 50 percent spending an average of about seven hours a week reading novels and other books.[citation needed] A sizeable "people's science" movement has taken root in the state, and such activities as writers' cooperatives are becoming increasingly common.[80][143]: 2 

BSNL, Reliance Infocomm, Tata Docomo, Vodafone, Aircel, Idea and Airtel compete to provide cellular phone services. Broadband internet is available in most of the towns and cities and is provided by different agencies like the state-run Kerala Telecommunications (which is run by BSNL) and by other private companies like Asianet Satellite communications, VSNL. BSNL provides broadband service in most of the cities.

Malayalam films are produced in Kerala and they are known for their realistic portrayal of characters as well as being socially oriented without giving a lot of importance to glitz and glamour. Movies produced in Hindi, Tamil and English (Hollywood) are also watched by many Keralites. Late Malayalam actor Prem Nazir entered the Guiness World Book of Records for having acted as the protagonist of over 720 movies.[144] Nowadays Malayalam movies are dominated mainly by two actors; Mohanlal and Mammotty who have been in the malayalam movie industry for over 25 years. They have won several National and State awards and are considered among the greatest actors in India[145][146]

Sports

Main article: Sports in Kerala
The Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium in Kochi is one of the largest multi-use stadiums in India

Several ancient ritualised arts are Keralite in origin. These include kalaripayattu—kalari ("place", "threshing floor", or "battlefield") and payattu ("exercise" or "practice"). Among the world's oldest martial arts, oral tradition attributes kalaripayattu's emergence to Parasurama.[147] Other ritual arts include theyyam and poorakkali.

Cricket and football are the most popular sports in the state.[148] Two Kerala Ranji Trophy players gained test selection in recent years. Sreesanth, born in Kothamangalam, has represented India since 2005.[149] Among other Keralite cricketers is Tinu Yohannan, son of Olympic long jumper T. C. Yohannan.[150][151][152] football, Notable Kerala footballers include I. M. Vijayan, C. V. Pappachan, V. P. Sathyan, and Jo Paul Ancheri.[153][154]

Other popular sports include badminton, volleyball and kabaddi. Among Kerala athletes are P. T. Usha, T. C. Yohannan, Suresh Babu, Shiny Wilson, K. M. Beenamol, M. D. Valsamma and Anju Bobby George. Volleyball is another popular sport and is often played on makeshift courts on sandy beaches along the coast. Jimmy George, born in Peravoor, Kannur, was a notable Indian volleyball player, rated in his prime as among the world's ten best players.[155]

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Kerala
Sunset at Varkala Beach

Kerala, situated on the lush and tropical Malabar Coast, is one of the most popular tourist destinations in India. Named as one of the "ten paradises of the world" and "50 places of a lifetime" by the National Geographic Traveler magazine, Kerala is especially known for its ecotourism initiatives.[156][157] Its unique culture and traditions, coupled with its varied demographics, has made Kerala one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world. Growing at a rate of 13.31%, the state's tourism industry is a major contributor to the state's economy.[158] Until the early 1980s, Kerala was a relatively unknown destination;[159] most tourist circuits focused on North India. Aggressive marketing campaigns launched by the Kerala Tourism Development Corporation, the government agency that oversees tourism prospects of the state, laid the foundation for the growth of the tourism industry. In the decades that followed, Kerala's tourism industry was able to transform the state into one of the niche holiday destinations in India. The tagline Kerala- God's Own Country has been widely used in Kerala's tourism promotions and soon became synonymous with the state. In 2006, Kerala attracted 8.5 million tourist arrivals, an increase of 23.68% over the previous year, making the state one of the fastest-growing destinations in the world.[160]

Popular attractions in the state include the beaches at Kovalam, Cherai, Varkala, Kappad, Muzhappilangad and Bekal; the hill stations of Munnar, Nelliampathi, Ponmudi and Wayanad; and national parks and wildlife sanctuaries at Periyar and Eravikulam National Park. The "backwaters" region, which comprises an extensive network of interlocking rivers, lakes, and canals that centre on Alleppey, Kollam, Kumarakom, and Punnamada (where the annual Nehru Trophy Boat Race is held in August), also see heavy tourist traffic. Heritage sites, such as the Padmanabhapuram Palace and the Mattancherry Palace, are also visited. Cities such as Kochi and Thiruvananthapuram are popular centres for their shopping and traditional theatrical performances. During early summer, the Thrissur Pooram is conducted, attracting foreign tourists who are largely drawn by the festival's elephants and celebrants.[161] The main pilgrim tourist spots of Kerala are Sabarimala Temple, Chettikulangara Temple, Vadakumnathan Temple, Guruvayoor Temple, Malayattor Church and Parumala Church.

Notes

  • ^ α: Around the 9th century, the Cheras fell from power. Several small kingdoms (swaroopams) formed under the leadership of chieftains, filling the resulting political vacuum.[38]

N

Citations

  1. ^ Census of India, 2001. Census Data Online, Population.
  2. ^ a b c "kerala front_ final printing 7Nov06.indd" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-07-30.
  3. ^ http://kerala.gov.in/keralacalljan_08/pg45.pdf
  4. ^ a b "Ancient History Sourcebook: Pliny: Natural History 6.96-111. (On India)". 74.125.153.132. 2009-05-06. Retrieved 2009-07-30.
  5. ^ a b "History of ancient geography - Google Books". Books.google.co.in. Retrieved 2009-07-30.
  6. ^ "Early history of Kerala". Government of Kerala. Retrieved 2007-05-16.
  7. ^ "officialwebsite of". Kerala.gov.in. Retrieved 2009-07-30.
  8. ^ "The land that arose from the sea". The Hindu. Retrieved 2009-07-30.
  9. ^ http://www.thehindu.com/2009/10/30/stories/2009103051440300.htm
  10. ^ UNDP HDI Trends (1981-2001) for selected Major Indian States
  11. ^ TN makes its way to top 5 states in HDI Financial Express -Monday, Mar 24, 2008
  12. ^ "India Corruption Study — 2005". Transparency International. 2005. Retrieved 2007-11-11. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  13. ^ a b c K.P. Kannan, K.S. Hari (2002). "Kerala's Gulf connection: Emigration, remittances and their macroeconomic impact 1972-2000".
  14. ^ a b c S Irudaya Rajan, K.C. Zachariah (2007). "Remittances and its impact on the Kerala Economy and Society" (PDF).
  15. ^ a b c "Jobs Abroad Support 'Model' State in India". New York Times. 2007.
  16. ^ Dobbie A (2006). India: The Elephant's Blessing. Melrose Press. ISBN 1-9052-2685-3. Retrieved 2009-01-02.
  17. ^ Menon AS (1967). A Survey of Kerala History. Sahitya Pravarthaka Cooperative Society.
  18. ^ George KM (1968). A Survey of Malayalam Literature. Asia Publishing House.
  19. ^ Oliver Freiberger (2006). Asceticism and its critics: historical accounts and comparative perspectives. Oxford Uniersity Press.
  20. ^ www.edakal.com
  21. ^ Kanakasabhai 1997, p. 10
  22. ^ "Carving the Buddha" (PDF). Govt of Kerala. Retrieved 2009-09-23.
  23. ^ Aiya VN (1906). The Travancore State Manual. Travancore Government Press. pp. 210–212. Retrieved 2007-11-12.
  24. ^ Sadasivan 2000, pp. 105–6
  25. ^ a b http://www.kerala.gov.in/history&culture/earlyhistory.htm
  26. ^ Iyengar PTS (2001). History Of The Tamils: From the Earliest Times to 600 A.D. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8-1206-0145-9. Retrieved 2008-12-29.
  27. ^ a b c * Bindu Malieckal (2005) Muslims, Matriliny, and A Midsummer Night's Dream: European Encounters with the Mappilas of Malabar, India; The Muslim World Volume 95 Issue 2
  28. ^ Milton J, Skeat WW, Pollard AW, Brown L (1982-08-31). The Indian Christians of St Thomas. Cambridge University Press. p. 171. ISBN 0-5212-1258-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ De Beth Hillel, David (1832). Travels (Madras publication).
  30. ^ Lord, James Henry (1977). The Jews in India and the Far East; Greenwood Press Reprint; ISBN.
  31. ^ "Kerala Syrian Christians, Apostle in India". nasrani.net. Retrieved 2009-10-25.
  32. ^ "Pope denies St. Thomas came to South India". Hamsa.org. Retrieved 2009-09-23.
  33. ^ Medlycott, A E. 1905 "India and the Apostle Thomas"; Gorgias Press LLC; ISBN
  34. ^ Thomas Puthiakunnel, (1973) "Jewish colonies of India paved the way for St. Thomas", The Saint Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, ed. George Menachery, Vol. II.
  35. ^ Chaitanya 1972, p. 15
  36. ^ Ravindran PN (2000). Black Pepper: Piper Nigrum. CRC Press. p. 3. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
  37. ^ Curtin PD (1984). Cross-Cultural Trade in World History. Cambridge University Press. p. 144. ISBN 0-5212-6931-8.
  38. ^ a b Mundadan AM (1984). Volume I: From the Beginning up to the Sixteenth Century (up to 1542). History of Christianity in India. Church History Association of India. Bangalore: Theological Publications.
  39. ^ Superintendent of Government Printing (1908). Imperial Gazetteer of India (Provincial Series): Madras. Calcutta: Government of India. p. 22. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
  40. ^ "Emergence of Nationalism: Punnapra-Vayalar revolt". Department of Public Relations (Government of Kerala). 2002. Archived from the original on 2005-02-23. Retrieved 2006-01-14.
  41. ^ www.education.kerala.gov.inTowards Modern Kerala, 10th Standard Text Book, Chapter 9, Page 101. See this Pdf
  42. ^ Qureshi, MN (1999). Pan-Islam in British Indian Politics: A Study of the Khilafat Movement, 1918–1924. Leiden [u.a.]: Brill. pp. 445–447. ISBN 9-0041-0538-7. OCLC 231706684.
  43. ^ a b Plunkett, Cannon & Harding 2001, p. 24
  44. ^ (Jose 1998).
  45. ^ a b c d e Government of Kerala 2005b.
  46. ^ Map Showing Multi Hazard Zones in Kerala (Map). United Nations Development Programme. 2002. Archived from the original on 2006-11-08. Retrieved 2006-01-12.
  47. ^ Inland Waterways Authority of India 2005
  48. ^ Padmalal D, Maya K, Sreebha S & Sreeja R, 2007, Environmental effects of river sand mining: a case from the river catchments of Vembanad lake, Southwest coast of India, Environmental Geology 54(4), 879-889. [1], Retrieved on July 17, 2009.
  49. ^ http://www.thehindu.com/2009/06/22/stories/2009062253680500.htm
  50. ^ http://www.kerelatourism.com/kochi.html
  51. ^ http://www.helium.com/items/1344783-history-of-cochin
  52. ^ http://www.india9.com/i9show/-Kerala/Ettumanoor/Kaduthuruthy-53206.htm
  53. ^ Chacko T (2002). "Temperature mapping, thermal diffusivity and subsoil heat flux at Kariavattom, Kerala". Proc Indian Acad Sci (Earth Planet Sci). {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  54. ^ a b c d e f Brenkert A (2003). "Vulnerability and resilience of India and Indian states to climate change: a first-order approximation". Joint Global Change Research Institute. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  55. ^ a b Government of Kerala 2004f, p. 141.
  56. ^ a b c d e f Sreedharan TP (2004). "Biological Diversity of Kerala: A survey of Kalliasseri panchayat, Kannur district" (PDF). Centre for Development Studies. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
  57. ^ Jayarajan M (2004). "Sacred Groves of North Malabar" (PDF). Centre for Development Studies. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
  58. ^ Government of Kerala 2004f, pp. 142–145
  59. ^ "India - largest cities (per geographical entity")". "World Gazetteer. Retrieved 2009-07-30.
  60. ^ "India - largest cities (per geographical entity")". "World Gazetteer. Retrieved 2009-07-30.
  61. ^ "Directorate of Industries and Commerce - Kannur District". Dic.kerala.gov.in. Retrieved 2009-07-30.
  62. ^ "Kerala". Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner. 2007-03-18. Retrieved 2008-07-23.
  63. ^ http://www.spiderkerala.com/kerala/information/assembly/Developments.aspx
  64. ^ www.kerala.gov.in/ele_rep/ele_51
  65. ^ http://www.parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/intro/p1.htm
  66. ^ keralastate.org/government.php
  67. ^ http://www.kerala.gov.in/government/judiciary.htm
  68. ^ "Budget at a Glance" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-07-30.
  69. ^ "Finance Commission (Ministry of Finance, Government of India)". Fincomindia.nic.in. Retrieved 2009-07-30.
  70. ^ Memoranda from States: Kerala[dead link]
  71. ^ Kerala Legislature. "Legislative Assembly of Kerala: Official Website". Niyamasabha.org. Retrieved 2009-07-30.
  72. ^ "Protest against frequent strikes". The Hindu. The Hindu. 5 July 2005. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  73. ^ Trade Associations in Kerala: Their functioning and implications, S. Muralidharan, Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, 2004
  74. ^ "Kerala's GDP hits an all-time high". Press Trust of India. Press Trust of India. 2006-02-09. Retrieved 2008-12-29.
  75. ^ a b c Mohindra KS (2003). "A report on women Self-Help Groups (SHGs) in Kerala state, India: a public health perspective". Université de Montréal Département de médecine sociale et prévention.
  76. ^ a b Government of Kerala 2004, p. 2.
  77. ^ "Pages" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-07-30.
  78. ^ Raman N (2005-05-17). "How almost everyone in Kerala learned to read". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2008-12-29.
  79. ^ a b c Varma MS (2005-04-04). "Nap on HDI scores may land Kerala in an equilibrium trap". The Financial Express. Retrieved 2007-11-12.
  80. ^ a b c d Tharamangalam J (2005). "The Perils of Social Development without Economic Growth: The Development Debacle of Kerala, India" (PDF). Political Economy for Environmental Planners. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
  81. ^ a b Government of Kerala 2004c, p. 24.
  82. ^ a b c Government of Kerala 2005c.
  83. ^ a b Balachandran PG (2004). "Constraints on Diffusion and Adoption of Agro-mechanical Technology in Rice Cultivation in Kerala" (PDF). Centre for Development Studies. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
  84. ^ a b Joy CV (2004). "Small Coffee Growers of Sulthan Bathery, Wayanad" (PDF). Centre for Development Studies. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
  85. ^ "State/Union Territory-Wise Number of Branches of Scheduled Commercial Banks and Average Population Per Bank Branch" (PDF). Reserve Bank of India. 2002. Retrieved 2008-12-28. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  86. ^ Kumar KG (2007-10-08). "Jobless no more?". The Hindu. A study by K.C. Zacharia and S. Irudaya Rajan, two economists at the Centre for Development Studies (CDS), Thiruvananthapuram, unemployment in Kerala has dropped from 19.1[%] in 2003 to 9.4[%] in 2007.
  87. ^ Nair NG. Nair PRG, Shaji H (ed.). Measurement of Employment, Unemployment, and Underemployment (PDF). Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development. Thiruvananthapuram: Centre for Development Studies. ISBN 81-87621-75-3. Retrieved 2008-12-31.
  88. ^ Government of Kerala 2004, p. 4.
  89. ^ Dhar A (2006-01-28). "260 million Indians still below poverty line". The Hindu. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
  90. ^ Government of Kerala 2006, p. 1.
  91. ^ (Foundation For Humanization 2002).
  92. ^ Kerala: Hartals Own Country?06 July 2008
  93. ^ Kumar KG (2003-09-22). "Accidentally notorious". The Hindu Business Line. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
  94. ^ Kumar VS (2006-01-20). "Kerala State transport project second phase to be launched next month". The Hindu Business Line. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
  95. ^ Kumar VS (2003). "Institutional Strengthening Action Plan (ISAP)". Public Works Department. Government of Kerala. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
  96. ^ "The three airports in Kerala can be in business without affecting each other". Rediff. 1999-12-06. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
  97. ^ "Cabinet clearance for Kannur airport". The Hindu. 2008-01-18. Retrieved 2009-02-24.
  98. ^ Office of the Registrar General 2001b
  99. ^ Kalathil MJ (2004). Nair PRG, Shaji H (ed.). Withering Valli: Alienation, Degradation, and Enslavement of Tribal Women in Attappady (PDF). Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development. Thiruvananthapuram: Centre for Development Studies. ISBN 81-87621-69-9. Retrieved 2008-12-29.
  100. ^ Office of the Registrar General 2001
  101. ^ Government of Kerala 2004c, p. 26.
  102. ^ Government of Kerala 2004c, p. 27.
  103. ^ Venkitakrishnan U (2003). Nair PRG, Shaji H (ed.). Rape Victims in Kerala (PDF). Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development. Thiruvananthapuram: Centre for Development Studies. Retrieved 2008-12-28. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  104. ^ a b c "Census of India". Retrieved 2009-04-12.
  105. ^ Heller P (4 May 2003). "Social capital as a product of class mobilization and state intervention: Industrial workers in Kerala, India". University of California: 49–50. Retrieved 2007-02-25. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  106. ^ [2] History of Kerala - Socio-Religious Reform Movement
  107. ^ Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; David de Beth Hillel, 1832; Lord, James Henry 1977.
  108. ^ http://www.ananthapuri.com/kerala-history.asp?page=jew
  109. ^ T.K. Joseph (1955). Six St. Thomases Of South India. University of California. p. 27.
  110. ^ Menachery G; 1973, 1998; Mundalan, A. M; 1984; Podipara, Placid J. 1970; Leslie Brown, 1956
  111. ^ Church History of Eusebius. Book V, Chapter X.
  112. ^ McVey, Kathleen E (trans) (1989). Ephrem the Syrian: hymns. Paulist Press. ISBN 0-8091-3093-9.
  113. ^ Mathew, N.M.(2003) St.Thomas Christians of Malabar Through Ages. Page 76.
  114. ^ "Introduction to Temples of Kerala: Evolution of Religion, Gods, Shrines and Temples". Retrieved 2009-06-24.
  115. ^ a b Lindberg A (2004). "Modernization and Effeminization in India: Kerala Cashew Workers since 1930" (PDF). 18th European Conference on Modern South Asian Studies (EASAS). Retrieved 2008-12-28. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  116. ^ Government of Kerala 2004r, p. 366
  117. ^ Government of Kerala 2002b.
  118. ^ "Kerala." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 June 2008
  119. ^ a b "Kerala: Human Development Fact Sheet". United Nations Development Programme. 2001: 1. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Cite error: The named reference "UNDP_2001" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  120. ^ Mohindra 2003, pp. 8–9.
  121. ^ Deaton A (2003-08-22). "Regional poverty estimates for India, 1999-2000" (PDF): 6. Retrieved 2007-11-12. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  122. ^ "EFA (Education for All) Global Monitoring Report" (PDF). UNESCO. 2003: 156. Retrieved 2007-11-12. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  123. ^ Kutty VR (2000). "Historical analysis of the development of health care facilities in Kerala State, India" (PDF). Health Policy and Planning. 15 (1): 103–109. doi:10.1093/heapol/15.1.103. PMID 10731241. Retrieved 2007-11-12.
  124. ^ "Kerala Named World's First WHO-UNICEF "Baby-Friendly State"". United Nations Foundation. 2002. Retrieved 2009-03-14. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  125. ^ Kutty VR (2004). Nair PRG, Shaji H (ed.). Why low birth weight (LBW) is still a problem in Kerala: A preliminary exploration (PDF). Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development. Thiruvananthapuram: Centre for Development Studies. ISBN 81-87621-60-5. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
  126. ^ a b c d Unnikrishnan, E (2004). "Materia Medica of the Local Health Traditions of Payyannur" (PDF). Centre for Development Studies. Retrieved 2006-01-22.
  127. ^ McKibben B (2006). "Kerala, India". National Geographic Traveller. Retrieved 2007-11-12.
  128. ^ a b c Kutty VR (2004). Nair PRG, Shaji H (ed.). Why low birth weight (LBW) is still a problem in Kerala: A preliminary exploration (PDF). Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development. Thiruvananthapuram: Centre for Development Studies. p. 6. ISBN 81-87621-60-5. Retrieved 2007-11-12.
  129. ^ Alagarajan M (2003). "An analysis of fertility differentials by religion in Kerala: A test of the interaction hypothesis" (PDF). Population Research and Policy Review. 22: 557. doi:10.1023/B:POPU.0000020963.63244.8c. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  130. ^ a b Krishnaswami P (2004). Neelakantan S, Nair PRG, Shaji H (ed.). Morbidity Study: Incidence, Prevalence, Consequences, and Associates (PDF). Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development. Thiruvananthapuram: Centre for Development Studies. ISBN 81-87621-66-4. Retrieved 2008-12-31.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  131. ^ Roy MKP (2004). Water quality and health status in Kollam Municipality (PDF). ISBN 81-87621-59-5. Retrieved 2008-12-28. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help); Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
  132. ^ D Suresh Kumar, TNN 13 October 2008, 03:14am IST (2008-10-13). "Kerala tops primary education index". Timesofindia.indiatimes.com. Retrieved 2009-07-30.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  133. ^ "Technical Education in Kerala — Department of Technical education". Professional Colleges in Thiruvananthapuram. Kerala Government. Retrieved 2006-08-25.
  134. ^ Bhagyalekshmy 2004, pp. 6–7.
  135. ^ "UNESCO Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity : "Kutiyattam, Sanskrit Theatre"". Unesco.org. Retrieved 2009-07-30.
  136. ^ Bhagyalekshmy 2004d, p. 29.
  137. ^ Bhagyalekshmy 2004d, p. 32.
  138. ^ Cooper KJ (20 October 1997). "For India, No Small Thing; Native Daughter Arundhati Roy Wins Coveted Booker Prize". Washington Post. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
  139. ^ "Indian's First Novel Wins Booker Prize in Britain". New York Times. 15 October 1997. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
  140. ^ "Winds, Rivers & Rain". Salon. 1997. Retrieved 2007-11-11. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  141. ^ "General Review". Registrar of Newspapers for India. Retrieved 2006-09-01.
  142. ^ "Google Malayalam News".
  143. ^ Ranjith KS (2004). Nair PRG, Shaji H (ed.). Rural Libraries of Kerala (PDF). Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development. Thiruvananthapuram: Centre for Development Studies. pp. 20–21. ISBN 81-87621-81-8. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
  144. ^ "Magic of Sophia Loren". The Hindu. 2003-10-02. Retrieved 200-07-12. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  145. ^ "'With dentures inside, you hear only shhhhh... and nothing else'". Rediff. 4 August 1999. Retrieved 2009-06-21.
  146. ^ Dhattiwala, Raheel (4 August 2004). "Aiming Higher". Times of India. Mammootty is the recipient of three National film awards for Best Actor, six State awards and six Filmfare awards in best actor category {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  147. ^ "CHOORAKKODY KALARI SANGAM". Retrieved 2009-06-17.
  148. ^ "Sports and Games in Kerala". Government of Kerala. Retrieved 2009-06-17.
  149. ^ "India Wins World Twenty20 Thriller". The Hindu. 2007-09-25. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
  150. ^ "It's advantage Tinu at the Mecca of cricket". The Hindu. 2002-06-13. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
  151. ^ "India Squad Profiles: Tinu Yohannan". BBC Sport. 2002. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
  152. ^ "Warriors from Kerala". The Hindu. 2002-01-20. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
  153. ^ AIFF AWARD PLAYER OF THE YEAR - All India Football Federation
  154. ^ James Wray and Ulf Stabe (2007-09-15). "Viva marks the resurgence of Kerala football". Monstersandcritics.com. Retrieved 2009-07-30.
  155. ^ "Jimmy George". Sports Portal. Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
  156. ^ "Paradise Found: Kerala, India". Fifty places of a lifetime. National Geographic Traveler. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
  157. ^ "Tourism beckons". The Hindu. 2004-05-11. Retrieved 2006-08-09.
  158. ^ "Tourist Statistics — 2005 (Provisional)" (PDF). Department of Tourism. Government of Kerala. 2005. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
  159. ^ Santhanam K (27 January 2002). "An ideal getaway". The Hindu Magazine. The Hindu. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
  160. ^ "Tourist Statistics — 2006" (PDF). Department of Tourism. Government of Kerala. 2006. Retrieved 2007-11-11.
  161. ^ "The stars of Pooram show are jumbos". The Hindu. 26 May 2006. Retrieved 2007-11-11.

References

Government
Other

Template:Link fa

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kerala&oldid=343177525"