Iran
Islamic Republic of Iran | |
|---|---|
| Motto: اَللَّٰهُ أَكْبَرُ Allāhu ʾakbar (Takbir) "God is greater [than everything]" (de jure) استقلال، آزادی، جمهوری اسلامی Esteqlâl, Âzâdi, Jomhuri-ye Eslâmi "Independence, freedom, the Islamic Republic" (de facto)[1] | |
| Anthem: سرود ملی جمهوری اسلامی ایران Sorud-e Melli-ye Jomhuri-ye Eslâmi-ye Irân "National Anthem of the Islamic Republic of Iran" | |
.svg) _-_IRN_-_UNOCHA.svg) | |
| Capital and largest city | Tehran 35°41′N 51°25′E / 35.683°N 51.417°E |
| Official languages | Persian |
| Demonym(s) | Iranian |
| Government | Unitary presidential theocratic Islamic republic |
| Ali Khamenei | |
| Masoud Pezeshkian | |
| Mohammad Reza Aref | |
| Legislature | Islamic Consultative Assembly |
| Formation | |
| c. 678 BC | |
| 550 BC | |
| 1501 | |
| 1736 | |
| 12 December 1905 | |
| 15 December 1925 | |
| 11 February 1979 | |
| 3 December 1979 | |
| Area | |
• Total | 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi) (17th) |
• Water (%) | 1.63 (as of 2015)[2] |
| Population | |
• 2024 estimate |  89,819,750[3] (17th) |
• Density | 55/km2 (142.4/sq mi) (132nd) |
| GDP (PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total |  $1.855 trillion[4] (19th) |
• Per capita | $21,220[4] (78th) |
| GDP (nominal) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $464.181 billion[4] (34th) |
• Per capita | $5,310[4] (113th) |
| Gini (2022) |  34.8[5]medium inequality |
| HDI (2022) | 0.780[6] high (78th) |
| Currency | Iranian rial (ریال) (IRR) |
| Time zone | UTC+3:30 (IRST) |
| ISO 3166 code | IR |
| Internet TLD | |
.svg)
Iran,[a][b] officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI),[c] also known as Persia,[d] is a country in West Asia. It borders Turkey to the northwest and Iraq to the west, Azerbaijan, Armenia, the Caspian Sea, and Turkmenistan to the north, Afghanistan to the east, Pakistan to the southeast, the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf to the south. With a multi-ethnic population of almost 90 million in an area of 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), Iran ranks 17th globally in both geographic size and population.[8] It is the sixth-largest country entirely in Asia and one of the world's most mountainous countries. Officially an Islamic republic, Iran has a Muslim-majority population. The country is divided into five regions with 31 provinces. Tehran is the nation's capital, largest city and financial center.
A cradle of civilization, Iran has been inhabited since the Lower Palaeolithic. The large part of Iran was first unified as a political entity by the Medes under Cyaxares in the seventh century BC, and reached its territorial height in the sixth century BC, when Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire, one of the largest in ancient history. Alexander the Great conquered the empire in the fourth century BC. An Iranian rebellion established the Parthian Empire in the third century BC and liberated the country, which was succeeded by the Sasanian Empire in the third century AD. Ancient Iran saw some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, religion and central government. Muslims conquered the region in the seventh century AD, leading to Iran's Islamization. The blossoming literature, philosophy, mathematics, medicine, astronomy and art became major elements for Iranian civilization during the Islamic Golden Age. A series of Iranian Muslim dynasties ended Arab rule, revived the Persian language and ruled the country until the Seljuk and Mongol conquests of the 11th to 14th centuries.
In the 16th century, the native Safavids re-established a unified Iranian state with Twelver Shi'ism as the official religion. During the Afsharid Empire in the 18th century, Iran was a leading world power, though by the 19th century, it had lost significant territory through conflicts with the Russian Empire. The early 20th century saw the Persian Constitutional Revolution and the establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty. Attempts by Mohammad Mosaddegh to nationalize the oil industry led to an Anglo-American coup in 1953. After the Iranian Revolution, the monarchy was overthrown in 1979 and the Islamic Republic of Iran was established by Ruhollah Khomeini, who became the country's first Supreme Leader. In 1980, Iraq invaded Iran, sparking the eight-year-long Iran–Iraq War, which ended in stalemate.
Iran is officially governed as a unitary Islamic republic with a presidential system, with ultimate authority vested in a Supreme Leader. The government is authoritarian and has attracted widespread criticism for its significant violations of human rights and civil liberties. Iran is a major regional power, due to its large reserves of fossil fuels, including the world's second largest natural gas supply, third largest proven oil reserves, its geopolitically significant location, military capabilities, cultural hegemony, regional influence, and role as the world's focal point of Shia Islam. The Iranian economy is the world's 19th-largest by PPP. Iran is an active and founding member of the United Nations, OIC, OPEC, ECO, NAM, SCO and BRICS. Iran is home to 28 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the 10th highest in the world, and ranks 5th in Intangible Cultural Heritage, or human treasures.
Etymology
The term Iran 'the land of the Aryans' derives from Middle Persian Ērān, first attested in a 3rd-century inscription at Naqsh-e Rostam, with the accompanying Parthian inscription using Aryān, in reference to the Iranians.[9] Ērān and Aryān are oblique plural forms of gentilic nouns ēr- (Middle Persian) and ary- (Parthian), deriving from Proto-Iranian language *arya- (meaning 'Aryan', i.e. of the Iranians),[9][10] recognised as a derivative of Proto-Indo-European language *ar-yo-, meaning 'one who assembles (skilfully)'.[11] According to Iranian mythology, the name comes from Iraj, a legendary king.[12]
Iran was referred to as Persia by the West, due to Greek historians who referred to all of Iran as Persís, meaning 'the land of the Persians'.[13][14][15][16] Persia is the Fars province in southwest Iran, the 4th largest province, also known as Pârs.[17][18] The Persian Fârs (فارس), derived from the earlier form Pârs (پارس), which is in turn derived from Pârsâ (Old Persian: 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿). Due to Fars' historical importance,[19][20] Persia originated from this territory through Greek in around 550 BC,[21] and Westerners referred to the entire country as Persia,[22][23] until 1935, when Reza Shah requested the international community to use its native and original name, Iran;[24] Iranians called their nation Iran since at least 1000 BC.[17] Today, both Iran and Persia are used culturally, while Iran remains mandatory in official use.[25][26][27][28][29]
The Persian pronunciation of Iran is [ʔiːˈɾɒːn]. Commonwealth English pronunciations of Iran are listed in the Oxford English Dictionary as /ɪˈrɑːn/ and /ɪˈræn/,[30] while American English dictionaries provide pronunciations which map to /ɪˈrɑːn, -ˈræn, aɪˈræn/,[31] or /ɪˈræn, ɪˈrɑːn, aɪˈræn/. The Cambridge Dictionary lists /ɪˈrɑːn/ as the British pronunciation and /ɪˈræn/ as the American pronunciation. Voice of America's pronunciation guide provides /ɪˈrɑːn/.[32]
History
![[icon]](/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small} | This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to itadding to it or making an edit request. (September 2024) |
.JPG)
Iran is home to one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 4000 BC.[33] The western part of the Iranian plateau participated in the traditional ancient Near East with Elam (3200–539 BC), and later with other peoples such as the Kassites, Mannaeans, and Gutians. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel called the Persians the "first Historical People".[34] The Iranian Empire began in the Iron Age with the rise of the Medes, who unified Iran as a nation and empire in 625 BC.[35] The Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC), founded by Cyrus the Great, was the largest empire the world had seen, spanning from the Balkans to North Africa and Central Asia. They were succeeded by the Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Empires, who governed Iran for almost 1,000 years, making Iran a leading power once again. Persia's arch-rival during this time was the Roman Empire and its successor, the Byzantine Empire.
Iran endured invasions by the Macedonians, Arabs, Turks, and Mongols. Despite these invasions, Iran continually reasserted its national identity and developed as a distinct political and cultural entity. The Muslim conquest of Persia (632–654) ended the Sasanian Empire and marked a turning point in Iranian history, leading to the Islamization of Iran from the eighth to tenth centuries and the decline of Zoroastrianism. However, the achievements of prior Persian civilizations were absorbed into the new Islamic polity. Iran suffered invasions by nomadic tribes during the Late Middle Ages and early modern period, negatively impacting the region.[36] Iran was reunified as an independent state in 1501 by the Safavid dynasty, which established Shia Islam as the empire's official religion,[37] marking another turning point in the history of Islam.[38] Iran functioned again as a leading world power, especially in rivalry with the Ottoman Empire. In the 19th century, Iran lost significant territories in the Caucasus to the Russian Empire following the Russo-Persian Wars.[39]
Iran remained a monarchy until the 1979 Iranian Revolution, when it officially became an Islamic republic on 1 April 1979.[40][41] Since then, Iran has experienced significant political, social, and economic changes. The establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran led to the restructuring of its political system, with Ayatollah Khomeini as the Supreme Leader. Iran's foreign relations have been shaped by the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), ongoing tensions with the United States, and its nuclear program, which has been a point of contention in international diplomacy.
Since the 1990s
| History of Iran |
|---|
 |
Timeline Iran portal |
In 1989, Akbar Rafsanjani concentrated on a pro-business policy of rebuilding the economy without breaking with the ideology of the revolution. He supported a free market domestically, favoring privatization of state industries and a moderate position internationally. In 1997, Rafsanjani was succeeded by moderate reformist Mohammad Khatami, whose government advocated freedom of expression, constructive diplomatic relations with Asia and the European Union, and an economic policy that supported a free market and foreign investment.
The 2005 presidential election brought conservative populist and nationalist candidate Mahmoud Ahmadinejad to power. He was known for his hardline views, nuclearisation, and hostility towards Israel, Saudi Arabia, the UK, the US and other states. He was the first president to be summoned by the parliament to answer questions regarding his presidency.[42] In 2013, centrist and reformist Hassan Rouhani was elected president. In domestic policy, he encouraged personal freedom, free access to information, and improved women's rights. He improved Iran's diplomatic relations through exchanging conciliatory letters.[43] The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) was reached in Vienna in 2015, between Iran, the P5+1 (UN Security Council + Germany) and the EU. The negotiations centered around ending the economic sanctions in exchange for Iran's restriction in producing enriched uranium.[44] In 2018, however, the US under Trump Administration withdrew from the deal and new sanctions were imposed. This nulled the economic provisions, left the agreement in jeopardy, and brought Iran to nuclear threshold status.[45] In 2020, IRGC general, Qasem Soleimani, the 2nd-most powerful person in Iran,[46] was assassinated by the US, heightening tensions between them.[47] Iran retaliated against US airbases in Iraq, the largest ballistic missile attack ever on Americans;[48] 110 sustained brain injuries.[49][50][51]
Hardliner Ebrahim Raisi ran for president again in 2021, succeeding Hassan Rouhani. During Raisi's term, Iran intensified uranium enrichment, hindered international inspections, joined SCO and BRICS, supported Russia in its invasion of Ukraine and restored diplomatic relations with Saudi Arabia. In April 2024, Israel's airstrike on an Iranian consulate, killed an IRGC commander.[52][53] Iran retaliated with UAVs, cruise and ballistic missiles; 9 hit Israel.[54][55][56] Western and Jordanian military helped Israel down some Iranian drones.[57][58] It was the largest drone strike in history,[59] biggest missile attack in Iranian history,[60] its first ever direct attack on Israel[61][62] and the first time since 1991, Israel was directly attacked by a state force.[63] This occurred during heightened tensions amid the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip. In May 2024, President Raisi was killed in a helicopter crash, and Iran held a presidential election in June, when reformist and former Minister of Health, Masoud Pezeshkian, came to power.[64][65]
Geography
Iran has an area of 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi). It is the sixth-largest country entirely in Asia and the second-largest in West Asia.[66] It lies between latitudes 24° and 40° N, and longitudes 44° and 64° E. It is bordered to the northwest by Armenia (35 km or 22 mi), the Azeri exclave of Nakhchivan (179 km or 111 mi),[67] and the Republic of Azerbaijan (611 km or 380 mi); to the north by the Caspian Sea; to the northeast by Turkmenistan (992 km or 616 mi); to the east by Afghanistan (936 km or 582 mi) and Pakistan (909 km or 565 mi); to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman; and to the west by Iraq (1,458 km or 906 mi) and Turkey (499 km or 310 mi).
Iran is in a seismically active area.[68] On average, an earthquake of magnitude seven on the Richter scale occurs once every ten years.[69] Most earthquakes are shallow-focus and can be very devastating, such as the 2003 Bam earthquake.
Iran consists of the Iranian Plateau. It is one of the world's most mountainous countries; its landscape is dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate basins or plateaus. The populous west part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Caucasus, Zagros, and Alborz, the last containing Mount Damavand, Iran's highest point, at 5,610 m (18,406 ft), which is the highest volcano in Asia. Iran's mountains have impacted its politics and economics for centuries.
The north part is covered by the lush lowland Caspian Hyrcanian forests, near the southern shores of the Caspian Sea. The east part consists mostly of desert basins, such as the Kavir Desert, which is the country's largest desert, and the Lut Desert, as well as salt lakes. The Lut Desert is the hottest recorded spot on the Earth's surface, with 70.7 °C recorded in 2005.[70][71][72][73] The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian and at the north end of the Persian Gulf, where the country borders the mouth of the Arvand river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz, and Gulf of Oman.[74][75][76]
Islands
Iranian islands are mainly located in the Persian Gulf. Iran has 102 islands in Urmia Lake, 427 in Aras River, several in Anzali Lagoon, Ashurade Island in the Caspian Sea, Sheytan Island in the Oman Sea and other inland islands. Iran has an uninhabited island at the far end of the Gulf of Oman, near Pakistan. A few islands can be visited by tourists. Most are owned by the military or used for wildlife protection, and entry is prohibited or requires a permit.[77][78][79]
Iran took control of Bumusa, and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs in 1971, in the Strait of Hormuz between the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman. Despite the islands being small and having little natural resources or population, they are highly valuable for their strategic location.[80][81][82][83][84] Although the United Arab Emirates claims sovereignty,[85][86][87] it has consistently been met with a strong response from Iran,[88][89][90] based on their historical and cultural background.[91] Iran has full-control over the islands.[92]
Kish island, as a free trade zone, is touted as a consumer's paradise, with malls, shopping centres, tourist attractions, and luxury hotels. Qeshm is the largest island in Iran, and a UNESCO Global Geopark since 2016.[93][94][95] Its salt cave, Namakdan, is the largest in the world, and one of the world's longest caves.[96][97][98][99]
Climate
Iran's climate is diverse, ranging from arid and semi-arid, to subtropical along the Caspian coast and northern forests.[100] On the north edge of the country, temperatures rarely fall below freezing and the area remains humid. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 °C (84.2 °F).[101] Annual precipitation is 680 mm (26.8 in) in the east part of the plain and more than 1,700 mm (66.9 in) in the west part. The UN Resident Coordinator for Iran, has said that "Water scarcity poses the most severe human security challenge in Iran today".[102]
To the west, settlements in the Zagros basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters with freezing average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The east and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (7.9 in) of rain and have occasional deserts.[103] Average summer temperatures rarely exceed 38 °C (100.4 °F). The southern coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355 mm (5.3 to 14.0 in).[104]
Biodiversity
More than one-tenth of the country is forested.[105] About 120 million hectares of forests and fields are government-owned for national exploitation.[106][107] Iran's forests can be divided into five vegetation regions: Hyrcanian region which forms the green belt of the north side of the country; the Turan region, which are mainly scattered in the center of Iran; Zagros region, which mainly contains oak forests in the west; the Persian Gulf region, which is scattered in the southern coastal belt; the Arasbarani region, which contains rare and unique species. More than 8,200 plant species are grown. The land covered by natural flora is four times that of Europe's.[108] There are over 200 protected areas to preserve biodiversity and wildlife, with over 30 being national parks.
Iran's living fauna includes 34 bat species, Indian grey mongoose, small Indian mongoose, golden jackal, Indian wolf, foxes, striped hyena, leopard, Eurasian lynx, brown bear and Asian black bear. Ungulate species include wild boar, urial, Armenian mouflon, red deer, and goitered gazelle.[109][110] One of the most famous animals is the critically endangered Asiatic cheetah, which survives only in Iran. Iran lost all its Asiatic lions and the extinct Caspian tigers by the early 20th century.[111] Domestic ungulates are represented by sheep, goat, cattle, horse, water buffalo, donkey and camel. Bird species like pheasant, partridge, stork, eagles and falcons are native.[112][113]
Government and politics
Supreme Leader
.jpg)
The Supreme Leader, "Rahbar", Leader of the Revolution or Supreme Leadership Authority, is the head of state and responsible for supervision of policy. The president has limited power compared to the Rahbar. Key ministers are selected with the Rahbar's agreement and they have the ultimate say on foreign policy.[114] The Rahbar is directly involved in ministerial appointments for Defence, Intelligence and Foreign Affairs, as well as other top ministries after submission of candidates from the president.
Regional policy is directly controlled by the Rahbar, with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' task limited to protocol and ceremonial occasions. Ambassadors to Arab countries, for example, are chosen by the Quds Force, which directly reports to the Rahbar.[115] The Rahbar can order laws to be amended.[116] Setad was estimated at $95 billion in 2013 by Reuters, accounts of which are secret even to the parliament.[117][118]
The Rahbar is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces, controls military intelligence and security operations, and has sole power to declare war or peace. The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, commanders of the police and military, and the members of the Guardian Council are all appointed by the Rahbar.
The Assembly of Experts is responsible for electing the Rahbar, and has the power to dismiss him on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem.[119] To date, the Assembly of Experts has not challenged any of the Rahbar's decisions nor attempted to dismiss him. The previous head of the judicial system, Sadeq Larijani, appointed by the Rahbar, said that it is illegal for the Assembly of Experts to supervise the Rahbar.[120] Many believe the Assembly of Experts has become a ceremonial body without any real power.[121][122][123]
The political system is based on the country's constitution.[124] Iran ranked 154th in the 2022 The Economist Democracy Index.[125] Juan José Linz wrote in 2000 that "the Iranian regime combines the ideological bent of totalitarianism with the limited pluralism of authoritarianism".[126]
President
The President is head of government and the second highest-ranking authority, after the Supreme Leader. The President is elected by universal suffrage for 4 years. Before elections, nominees to become a presidential candidate must be approved by the Guardian Council.[127] The Council's members are chosen by the Leader, with the Leader having the power to dismiss the president.[128] The President can only be re-elected for one term.[129] The president is the deputy commander-in-chief of the Army, the head of Supreme National Security Council, and has the power to declare a state of emergency after passage by the parliament.
The President is responsible for the implementation of the constitution, and for the exercise of executive powers in implementing the decrees and general policies as outlined by the Rahbar, except for matters directly related to the Rahbar, who has the final say.[130] The President functions as the executive of affairs such as signing treaties and other international agreements, and administering national planning, budget, and state employment affairs, all as approved by the Rahbar.[131][132]
The President appoints ministers, subject to the approval of the Parliament, and the Rahbar, who can dismiss or reinstate any minister.[133][134][135] The President supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature.[136] Eight Vice Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of 22 ministers, all appointed by the president.[137]
Guardian Council
Presidential and parliamentary candidates must be approved by the 12-member Guardian Council (all members of which are appointed by the Leader) or the Leader, before running to ensure their allegiance.[138] The Leader rarely does the vetting, but has the power to do so, in which case additional approval of the Guardian Council is not needed. The Leader can revert the decisions of the Guardian Council.[139]
The constitution gives the council three mandates: veto power over legislation passed by the parliament,[140][141] supervision of elections[142] and approving or disqualifying candidates seeking to run in local, parliamentary, presidential, or Assembly of Experts elections.[143] The council can nullify a law based on two accounts: being against Sharia (Islamic law), or being against the constitution.[144]
Supreme National Security Council
The Supreme National Security Council (SNSC) is at the top of the foreign policy decisions process.[145][146][147] The council was formed during the 1989 Iranian constitutional referendum for the protection and support of national interests, the revolution, territorial integrity and national sovereignty.[148] It is mandated by Article 176 of the Constitution to be presided over by the President.[149][150]
The Leader selects the secretary of the Supreme Council, and the decisions of the council are effective after the confirmation by the Leader. The SNSC formulates nuclear policy, and would become effective if they are confirmed by the Leader.[151][152]
Legislature
The legislature, known as the Islamic Consultative Assembly (ICA), Iranian Parliament or "Majles", is a unicameral body comprising 290 members elected for four-years.[153] It drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All parliamentary candidates and legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Guardian Council.[154][155] The Guardian Council can and has dismissed elected members of the parliament.[156][157] The parliament has no legal status without the Guardian Council, and the Council holds absolute veto power over legislation.[158]
The Expediency Discernment Council has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Guardian Council, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in Iran.[159][160]
The Parliament has 207 constituencies, including the 5 reserved seats for religious minorities. The remaining 202 are territorial, each covering one or more of Iran's counties.
Law
Iran uses a form of Sharia law as its legal system, with elements of European Civil law. The Supreme Leader appoints the head of the Supreme Court and chief public prosecutor. There are several types of courts, including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and revolutionary courts which deal with certain offences, such as crimes against national security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed.
The Chief Justice is the head of the judicial system and responsible for its administration and supervision. He is the highest judge of the Supreme Court of Iran. The Chief Justice nominates candidates to serve as minister of justice, and the President selects one. The Chief Justice can serve for two five-year terms.[161]
The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has taken on cases involving laypeople. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Rahbar. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed.[162] The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for 8-year terms.
Administrative divisions
Iran is subdivided into thirty-one provinces (Persian: استان ostân), each governed from a local centre, usually the largest local city, which is called the capital (Persian: مرکز, markaz) of that province. The provincial authority is headed by a governor-general (استاندار ostândâr), who is appointed by the Minister of the Interior subject to approval of the cabinet.[163]
Foreign relations
Iran maintains diplomatic relations with 165 countries, but not the United States and Israel—a state which Iran derecognised in 1979.[164]
Iran has an adversarial relationship with Saudi Arabia due to different political and ideologies. Iran and Turkey have been involved in modern proxy conflicts such as in Syria, Libya, and the South Caucasus.[165][166][167] However, they have shared common interests, such as the issue of Kurdish separatism and the Qatar diplomatic crisis.[168][169] Iran has a close and strong relationship with Tajikistan.[170][171][172][173] Iran has deep economic relations and alliance with Iraq, Lebanon and Syria, with Syria often described as Iran's "closest ally".[174][175][176]
Russia is a key trading partner, especially in regard to its excess oil reserves.[177][178] Both share a close economic and military alliance, and are subject to heavy sanctions by Western nations.[179][180][181][182] Iran is the only country in Western Asia that has been invited to join the CSTO, the Russia-based international treaty organization that parallels NATO.[183]
Relations between Iran and China are strong economically; they have developed a friendly, economic and strategic relationship. In 2021, Iran and China signed a 25-year cooperation agreement that will strengthen the relations between the two countries and would include "political, strategic and economic" components.[184] Iran-China relations dates back to at least 200 BC and possibly earlier.[185][186] Iran is one of the few countries in the world that has a good relationship with both North and South Korea.[187]
Iran is a member of dozens of international organizations, including the G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, IDA, NAM, IDB, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, OIC, OPEC, WHO, and the UN, and currently has observer status at the WTO.
Military
.jpg)
The military is organized under a unified structure, the Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces, comprising the Islamic Republic of Iran Army, which includes the Ground Forces, Air Defence Force, Air Force, and Navy; the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, which consists of the Ground Forces, Aerospace Force, Navy, Quds Force, and Basij; and the Law Enforcement Command (Faraja), which serves an analogous function to a gendarme. While the IRIAF protects the country's sovereignty in a traditional capacity, the IRGC is mandated to ensure the integrity of the Republic, against foreign interference, coups, and internal riots.[188] Since 1925, it is mandatory for all male citizen aged 18 to serve around 14 months in the IRIAF or IRGC.[189][190]
Iran has over 610,000 active troops and around 350,000 reservists, totalling over 1 million military personnel, one of the world's highest percentage of citizens with military training.[191][192][193][194] The Basij, a paramilitary volunteer militia within the IRGC, has over 20 million members, 600,000 available for immediate call-up, 300,000 reservists, and a million that could be mobilized when necessary.[195][196][197][198] Faraja, the Iranian uniformed police force, has over 260,000 active personnel. Most statistical organizations do not include the Basij and Faraja in their ratings report.
Excluding the Basij and Faraja, Iran has been identified as a major military power, owing it to the size and capabilities of its armed forces. It possesses the world's 14th strongest military.[199] It ranks 13th globally in terms of overall military strength, 7th in the number of active military personnel,[200] and 9th in the size of both its ground force and armoured force. Iran's armed forces are the largest in West Asia and comprise the greatest Army Aviation fleet in the Middle East.[201][202][203] Iran is among the top 15 countries in terms of military budget.[204] In 2021, its military spending increased for the first time in four years, to $24.6 billion, 2.3% of the national GDP.[205] Funding for the IRGC accounted for 34% of Iran's total military spending in 2021.[206]
Since the Revolution, to overcome foreign embargoes, Iran has developed a domestic military industry capable of producing indigenous tanks, armoured personnel carriers, missiles, submarines, missile destroyer, radar systems, helicopters, naval vessels, and fighter planes.[207] Official announcements have highlighted the development of advanced weaponry, particularly in rocketry.[208][n 1] Consequently, Iran has the largest and most diverse ballistic missile arsenal in the Middle East and is only the 5th country in the world with hypersonic missile technology.[209][210] It is the world's 6th missile power.[211] Iran designs and produces a variety of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and is considered a global leader and superpower in drone warfare and technology.[212][213][214] It is one of the world's five countries with cyberwarfare capabilities and is identified as "one of the most active players in the international cyber arena".[215][216][217] Iran is an key exporter of arms since 2000s.[218]
Following Russia's purchase of Iranian drones during the invasion of Ukraine,[219][220][221] in November 2023, the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force (IRIAF) finalized arrangements to acquire Russian Sukhoi Su-35 fighter jets, Mil Mi-28 attack helicopters, air defence and missile systems.[222][223] The Iranian Navy has had joint exercises with Russia and China.[224]
Nuclear program
Iran's nuclear program dates back to the 1950s.[225] Iran revived it after the Revolution, and its extensive nuclear fuel cycle, including enrichment capabilities, became the subject of intense international negotiations and sanctions.[226] Many countries have expressed concern Iran could divert civilian nuclear technology into a weapons programme.[227] In 2015, Iran and the P5+1 agreed to the Joint Comprehensive Plan on Action (JCPOA), aiming to end economic sanctions in exchange for restriction in producing enriched uranium.[228]
In 2018, however, the US withdrew from the deal under the Trump administration, and reimposed sanctions. This was met with resistance by Iran and other members of the P5+1.[229][230][231] A year later, Iran began decreasing its compliance.[232] By 2020, Iran announced it would no longer observe any limit set by the agreement.[233][234] Progress since then has brought Iran to the nuclear threshold status.[235][236][237] As of November 2023[update], Iran had uranium enriched to up to 60% fissile content, close to weapon grade.[238][239][240][241] Some analysts already regard Iran as a de facto nuclear power.[242][243][244]
Regional influence
.png)
Iran's significant influence and foothold, sometimes characterised as the "Dawn of A New Persian Empire."[245][246][247][248] Some analysts associate the Iranian influence to the nation's proud national legacy, empire and history.[249][250][251]
Since the Revolution, Iran has grown its influence across and beyond the region.[252][253][254][255] It has built military forces with a wide network of state and none-state actors, starting with Hezbollah in Lebanon in 1982.[256][257] The IRGC has been key to Iranian influence, through its Quds Force.[258][259][260] The instability in Lebanon (from the 1980s),[261] Iraq (from 2003) [262] and Yemen (from 2014) [263] has allowed Iran to build strong alliances and footholds beyond its borders. Iran has a prominent influence in the social services, education, economy and politics of Lebanon,[264][265] and Lebanon provides Iran access to the Mediterranean Sea.[266][267] Hezbollah's strategic successes against Israel, such as its symbolic victory during the 2006 Israel–Hezbollah War, elevated Iran's influence in the Levant and strengthened its appeal across the Muslim World.[268][269]
Since the US invasion of Iraq in 2003 and the arrival of ISIS in the mid-2010s, Iran has financed and trained militia groups in Iraq.[270][271][272] Since the Iran-Iraq war in 1980s and the fall of Saddam Hussein, Iran has shaped Iraq's politics.[273][274][275] Following Iraq's struggle against ISIS in 2014, companies linked to the IRGC such as Khatam al-Anbiya, started to build roads, power plants, hotels and businesses in Iraq, creating an economic corridor worth around $9 billion before COVID-19.[276] This is expected to grow to $20 billion.[277][278]
During Yemen's civil war, Iran provided military support to the Houthis,[279][280][281] a Zaydi Shiite movement fighting Yemen's Sunni government since 2004.[282][283] They gained significant power in recent years.[284][285][286] Iran has considerable influence in Afghanistan and Pakistan through militant groups such as Liwa Fatemiyoun and Liwa Zainebiyoun.[287][288][289]
In Syria, Iran has supported President Bashar al-Assad;[290][291] the two countries are long-standing allies.[292][293] Iran has provided significant military and economic support to Assad's government,[294][295] so has a considerable foothold in Syria.[296][297] Iran has long supported the anti-Israel fronts in North Africa in countries like Algeria and Tunisia, embracing Hamas in part to help undermine the popularity of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO).[298] Iran's support of Hamas emerged more clearly in later years.[299][300][301][302] According to US intelligence, Iran does not have full control over these state and non-state groups.[303]
Human rights and censorship
The Iranian government has been denounced by various international organizations and governments for violating human rights.[305] The government has frequently persecuted and arrested critics of the government. Iranian law does not recognize sexual orientations. Sexual activity between members of the same sex is illegal and is punishable by death.[306][307] Capital punishment is a legal punishment, and according to the BBC, Iran "carries out more executions than any other country, except China".[308] UN Special Rapporteur Javaid Rehman has reported discrimination against several ethnic minorities in Iran.[309] A group of UN experts in 2022 urged Iran to stop "systematic persecution" of religious minorities, adding that members of the Baháʼí Faith were arrested, barred from universities, or had their homes demolished.[310][311]
Censorship in Iran is ranked among the most extreme worldwide.[312][313][314] Iran has strict internet censorship, with the government persistently blocking social media and other sites.[315][316][317] Since January 2021, Iranian authorities have blocked a list of social media platforms; Instagram, WhatsApp, Facebook, Telegram, Twitter and YouTube.[318]
The 2006 election results were widely disputed, resulting in protests.[319][320][321][322] The 2017–18 Iranian protests swept across the country in response to the economic and political situation.[323] It was formally confirmed that thousands of protesters were arrested.[324] The 2019–20 Iranian protests started on 15 November in Ahvaz, and spread across the country after the government announced increases in fuel prices of up to 300%.[325] A week-long total Internet shutdown marked one of the most severe Internet blackouts in any country, and the bloodiest governmental crackdown of the protestors.[326] Tens of thousands were arrested and hundreds were killed within a few days according to multiple international observers, including Amnesty International.[327]
Ukraine International Airlines Flight 752, was a scheduled international civilian passenger flight from Tehran to Kyiv, operated by Ukraine International Airlines. On 8 January 2020, the Boeing 737–800 flying the route was shot down by the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) shortly after takeoff, killing all 176 occupants on board and leading to protests. An international investigation led to the government admitting to the shootdown, calling it a "human error".[328][329] Another Protests against the government began on 16 September 2022 after a woman named Mahsa Amini died in police custody following her arrest by the Guidance Patrol, known commonly as the "morality police".[330][331][332][333]
Economy
As of 2024[update], Iran has the world's 19th largest economy (by PPP). It is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures.[334] Services contribute the largest percentage of GDP, followed by industry (mining and manufacturing) and agriculture.[335] The economy is characterized by its hydrocarbon sector, in addition to manufacturing and financial services.[336] With 10% of the world's oil reserves and 15% of gas reserves, Iran is an energy superpower. Over 40 industries are directly involved in the Tehran Stock Exchange.
Tehran is the economic powerhouse of Iran.[337] About 30% of Iran's public-sector workforce and 45% of its large industrial firms are located there, and half those firms' employees work for government.[338] The Central Bank of Iran is responsible for developing and maintaining the currency: the Iranian rial. The government does not recognise trade unions other than the Islamic labour councils, which are subject to the approval of employers and the security services.[339] Unemployment was 9% in 2022.[340]
Budget deficits have been a chronic problem, mostly due to large state subsidies, that include foodstuffs and especially petrol, totalling $100 billion in 2022 for energy alone.[342][343] In 2010, the economic reform plan was to cut subsidies gradually and replace them with targeted social assistance. The objective is to move towards free market prices and increase productivity and social justice.[344] The administration continues reform, and indicates it will diversify the oil-reliant economy. Iran has developed a biotechnology, nanotechnology, and pharmaceutical industry.[345] The government is privatising industries.
Iran has leading manufacturing industries in automobile manufacture, transportation, construction materials, home appliances, food and agricultural goods, armaments, pharmaceuticals, information technology, and petrochemicals in the Middle East.[346] Iran is among the world's top five producers of apricots, cherries, cucumbers and gherkins, dates, figs, pistachios, quinces, walnuts, Kiwifruit and watermelons.[347] International sanctions against Iran have damaged the economy.[348] Iran is one of three countries that have not ratified the Paris Agreement to limit climate change, although academics say it would be good for the country.[349]
Tourism
Tourism had been rapidly growing before the COVID-19 pandemic, reaching nearly 9 million foreign visitors in 2019, the world's third fastest-growing tourism destination.[351][352] In 2022 it expanded its share to 5% of the economy.[353] Iran's tourism experienced a growth of 43% in 2023, attracting 6 million foreign tourists.[354] The government ended visa requirements for 60 countries in 2023.[355]
98% of visits are for leisure, while 2% are for business, indicating the country's appeal as a tourist destination.[356] Alongside the capital, the most popular tourist destinations are Isfahan, Shiraz and Mashhad.[357] Iran is emerging as a preferred destination for medical tourism.[358][359] Travellers from other West Asian countries grew 31% in the first seven months of 2023, surpassing Bahrain, Kuwait, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia.[360] Domestic tourism is one of the world's largests; Iranian tourists spent $33bn in 2021.[361][362][363] Iran projects investment of $32 billion in the tourism sector by 2026.[364]
Agriculture and fishery
Roughly one-third of Iran's total surface area is suited for farmland. Only 12% of the total land area is under cultivation, but less than one-third of the cultivated area is irrigated; the rest is devoted to dryland farming. Some 92% of agricultural products depend on water.[365] The western and northwestern portions of the country have the most fertile soils. Iran's food security index stands at around 96 percent.[366][367] 3% of the total land area is used for grazing and fodder production. Most of the grazing is done on mostly semi-dry rangeland in mountain areas and on areas surrounding the large deserts of Central Iran. Progressive government efforts and incentives during the 1990s, improved agricultural productivity, helping Iran toward its goal of reestablishing national self-sufficiency in food production.
Access to the Caspian Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, and many river basins provides Iran the potential to develop excellent fisheries. The government assumed control of commercial fishing in 1952. Expansion of the fishery infrastructure enabled the country to harvest an estimated 700,000 tons of fish annually from the southern waters. Since the Revolution, increased attention has been focused on producing fish from inland waters. Between 1976 and 2004, the combined take from inland waters by the state and private sectors increased from 1,100 tons to 110,175 tons.[368] Iran is the world's largest producer and exporter of caviar, exporting more than 300 tonnes annually.[369][370]
Industry and services
Iran is globally ranked 16th in car manufacturing, ahead of the UK, Italy, and Russia.[372][373] It has outputted 1.188 million cars in 2023, a 12% growth compared to the previous years. Iran has exported various cars to countries such as Venezuela, Russia and Belarus. From 2008 to 2009, Iran leaped to 28th place from 69th in annual industrial production growth rate.[374] Iranian contractors have been awarded several foreign tender contracts in different fields of construction of dams, bridges, roads, buildings, railroads, power generation, and gas, oil and petrochemical industries. As of 2011, some 66 Iranian industrial companies are carrying out projects in 27 countries.[375] Iran exported over $20 billion worth of technical and engineering services over 2001–2011. The availability of local raw materials, rich mineral reserves, experienced manpower have all played crucial role in winning the bids.[376]
45% of large industrial firms are located in Tehran, and almost half of their workers work for government.[377] The Iranian retail industry is largely in the hands of cooperatives, many of them government-sponsored, and of independent retailers in the bazaars. The bulk of food sales occur at street markets, where the Chief Statistics Bureau sets the prices.[378] Iran's main exports are to Iraq, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Oman, Syria, Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, France, Canada, Venezuela, Japan, South Korea and Turkey.[379][380] Iran's automotive industry is the second most active industry of the country, after its oil and gas industry. Iran Khodro is the largest car manufacturer in the Middle East, and ITMCO is the biggest tractor manufacturer. Iran is the 12th largest automaker in the world. Construction is one of the most important sectors in Iran accounting for 20–50% of the total private investment.
Iran is one of the most important mineral producers in the world, ranked among 15 major mineral-rich countries.[381][382] Iran has become self-sufficient in designing, building and operating dams and power plants. Iran is one of the six countries in the world that manufacture gas- and steam-powered turbines.[383]
Transport
In 2011 Iran had 173,000 kilometres (107,000 mi) of roads, of which 73% were paved.[384] In 2008 there were nearly 100 passenger cars for every 1,000 inhabitants.[385] Tehran Metro is the largest in the Middle East,[386][387] it carries more than 3 million passengers daily and in 2018, 820 million trips.[388][389] Trains operate on 11,106 km (6,901 mi) of track.[390] The country's major port of entry is Bandar Abbas on the Strait of Hormuz. Imported goods are distributed through the country by trucks and freight trains. The Tehran–Bandar Abbas railroad connects Bandar-Abbas to the railroad system of Central Asia, via Tehran and Mashhad. Other major ports include Bandar e-Anzali and Bandar e-Torkeman on the Caspian Sea and Khorramshahr and Bandar-e Emam Khomeyni on the Persian Gulf.
Dozens of cities have airports that serve passenger and cargo planes. Iran Air, the national airline, operates domestic and international flights. All large cities have mass transit systems using buses, and private companies provide bus services between cities. Over a million people work in transport, accounting for 9% of GDP.[391]
Energy
.jpg)
Iran is an energy superpower and petroleum plays a key part.[393][394] As of 2023[update], Iran produced 4% of the world's crude oil (3.6 million barrels (570,000 m3) per day),[395] which generates US$36bn[396] of export revenue and is the main source of foreign currency.[397] Oil and gas reserves are estimated at 1.2 trn barrels;[398] Iran holds 10% of world oil reserves and 15% for gas. It ranks 3rd in oil reserves[399] and is OPEC's 2nd largest exporter. It has the 2nd largest gas reserves,[400] and 3rd largest natural gas production. In 2019, Iran discovered a southern oil field of 50 bn barrels[401][402][403][404] and in April 2024, the NIOC discovered 10 giant shale oil deposits, totalling 2.6 bn barrels.[405][406][407] Iran plans to invest $500 billion in oil by 2025.[408]
Iran manufactures 60–70% of its industrial equipment domestically, including turbines, pumps, catalysts, refineries, oil tankers, drilling rigs, offshore platforms, towers, pipes, and exploration instruments.[409] The addition of new hydroelectric stations and streamlining of conventional coal and oil-fired stations increased installed capacity to 33 GW; about 75% was based on natural gas, 18% on oil, and 7% on hydroelectric power. In 2004, Iran opened its first wind-powered and geothermal plants, and the first solar thermal plant began in 2009. Iran is the world's third country to develop GTL technology.[410]
Demographic trends and intensified industrialization have caused electric power demand to grow by 8% per year. The government's goal of 53 GW of installed capacity by 2010 is to be reached by bringing on line new gas-fired plants, and adding hydropower and nuclear generation capacity. Iran's first nuclear power plant went online in 2011.[411][412]
Science and technology
Iran has made considerable advances in science and technology, despite international sanctions. In the biomedical sciences, Iran's Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics has a UNESCO chair in biology.[413] In 2006, Iranian scientists successfully cloned a sheep at the Royan Research Center in Tehran.[414] Stem cell research is among the top 10 in the world.[415] Iran ranks 15th in the world in nanotechnologies.[416][417][418] Iranian scientists outside Iran have made major scientific contributions. In 1960, Ali Javan co-invented the first gas laser, and fuzzy set theory was introduced by Lotfi A. Zadeh.[419]
Cardiologist Tofy Mussivand invented and developed the first artificial cardiac pump, the precursor of the artificial heart. Furthering research in diabetes, the HbA1c was discovered by Samuel Rahbar. Many papers in string theory are published in Iran.[420] In 2014, Iranian mathematician Maryam Mirzakhani became the first woman, and Iranian, to receive the Fields Medal, the highest prize in mathematics.[421]
Iran increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and ranked first in output growth rate, followed by China.[422] According to a study by SCImago in 2012, Iran would rank fourth in research output by 2018, if the trend persisted.[423] The Iranian humanoid robot Sorena 2, which was designed by engineers at the University of Tehran, was unveiled in 2010. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has placed the name of Surena among the five most prominent robots, after analyzing its performance.[424]
Iran was ranked 64th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.[425]
Iranian Space Agency
The Iranian Space Agency (ISA) was established in 2004. Iran became an orbital-launch-capable nation in 2009,[426] and is a founding member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Iran placed its domestically built satellite Omid into orbit on the 30th anniversary of the Revolution, in 2009,[427] through its first expendable launch vehicle Safir. It became the 9th country capable of both producing a satellite and sending it into space from a domestically made launcher.[428] Simorgh's launch in 2016, is the successor of Safir.[429]
In January 2024, Iran launched the Soraya satellite into its highest orbit yet (750 km),[430][431] a new space launch milestone for the country.[432][433] It was launched by Qaem 100 rocket.[434][435] Iran also successfully launched 3 indigenous satellites, The Mahda, Kayan and Hatef,[436] into orbit using the Simorgh carrier rocket.[437][438] It was the first time in country's history that it simultaneously sent three satellites into space.[439][440] The three satellites are designed for testing advanced satellite subsystems, space-based positioning technology, and narrowband communication.[441]
In February 2024, Iran launched its domestically developed imaging satellite, Pars 1, from Russia into orbit.[442][443] This was the second time since August 2022, when Russia launched another Iranian remote-sensing, Khayyam satellite, into orbit from Kazakhstan, reflecting deep scientific cooperation between the countries.[444][445]
Telecommunication
Iran's telecommunications industry is almost entirely state-owned, dominated by the Telecommunication Company of Iran (TCI). As of 2020, 70 million Iranians use high-speed mobile internet. Iran is among the first five countries which have had a growth rate of over 20 percent and the highest level of development in telecommunication.[446] Iran has been awarded the UNESCO special certificate for providing telecommunication services to rural areas.
Globally, Iran ranks 75th in mobile internet speed and 153rd in fixed internet speed.[447]
Demographics
.svg)
Iran's population grew rapidly from about 19 million in 1956 to about 85 million by February 2023.[448] However, Iran's fertility rate has dropped dramatically, from 6.5 children born per woman to about 1.7 two decades later,[449][450][451] leading to a population growth rate of about 1.39% as of 2018.[452] Due to its young population, studies project that the growth will continue to slow until it stabilises around 105 million by 2050.[453][454][455]
Iran hosts one of the largest refugee populations, with almost one million,[456] mostly from Afghanistan and Iraq.[457] According to the Iranian Constitution, the government is required to provide every citizen with access to social security, covering retirement, unemployment, old age, disability, accidents, calamities, health and medical treatment and care services.[458] This is covered by tax revenues and income derived from public contributions.[459]
The country has one of the highest urban growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002, the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.[460] Iran's population is concentrated in its western half, especially in the north, north-west and west.[461]
Tehran, with a population of around 9.4 million, is Iran's capital and largest city. The country's second most populous city, Mashhad, has a population of around 3.4 million, and is capital of the province of Razavi Khorasan. Isfahan has a population of around 2.2 million and is Iran's third most populous city. It is the capital of Isfahan province and was also the third capital of the Safavid Empire.
Largest cities or towns in Iran
2016 census | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | ||
.jpg) Tehran  Mashhad |
1 | Tehran | Tehran | 8,693,706 | 11 | Rasht | Gilan | 679,995 |  Isfahan  Karaj |
| 2 | Mashhad | Razavi Khorasan | 3,001,184 | 12 | Zahedan | Sistan and Baluchestan | 587,730 | ||
| 3 | Isfahan | Isfahan | 1,961,260 | 13 | Hamadan | Hamadan | 554,406 | ||
| 4 | Karaj | Alborz | 1,592,492 | 14 | Kerman | Kerman | 537,718 | ||
| 5 | Shiraz | Fars | 1,565,572 | 15 | Yazd | Yazd | 529,673 | ||
| 6 | Tabriz | East Azarbaijan | 1,558,693 | 16 | Ardabil | Ardabil | 529,374 | ||
| 7 | Qom | Qom | 1,201,158 | 17 | Bandar Abbas | Hormozgan | 526,648 | ||
| 8 | Ahvaz | Khuzestan | 1,184,788 | 18 | Arak | Markazi | 520,944 | ||
| 9 | Kermanshah | Kermanshah | 946,651 | 19 | Eslamshahr | Tehran | 448,129 | ||
| 10 | Urmia | West Azarbaijan | 736,224 | 20 | Zanjan | Zanjan | 430,871 | ||
Ethnic groups
Ethnic group composition remains a point of debate, mainly regarding the largest and second largest ethnic groups, the Persians and Azerbaijanis, due to the lack of Iranian state censuses based on ethnicity. The World Factbook has estimated that around 79% of the population of Iran is a diverse Indo-European ethno-linguistic group,[462] with Persians (including Mazenderanis and Gilaks) constituting 61% of the population, Kurds 10%, Lurs 6%, and Balochs 2%. Peoples of other ethnolinguistic groups make up the remaining 21%, with Azerbaijanis constituting 16%, Arabs 2%, Turkmens and other Turkic tribes 2%, and others (such as Armenians, Talysh, Georgians, Circassians, Assyrians) 1%.
The Library of Congress issued slightly different estimates: 65% Persians (including Mazenderanis, Gilaks, and the Talysh), 16% Azerbaijanis, 7% Kurds, 6% Lurs, 2% Baloch, 1% Turkic tribal groups (including Qashqai and Turkmens), and non-Iranian, non-Turkic groups (including Armenians, Georgians, Assyrians, Circassians, and Arabs) less than 3%.[463][464]
Languages
Most of the population speaks Persian, the country's official and national language.[465] Others include speakers of other Iranian languages, within the greater Indo-European family, and languages belonging to other ethnicities. The Gilaki and Mazenderani languages are widely spoken in Gilan and Mazenderan, northern Iran. The Talysh language is spoken in parts of Gilan. Varieties of Kurdish are concentrated in the province of Kurdistan and nearby areas. In Khuzestan, several dialects of Persian are spoken. South Iran also houses the Luri and Lari languages.
Azerbaijani, the most-spoken minority language in the country,[466] and other Turkic languages and dialects are found in various regions, especially Azerbaijan. Notable minority languages include Armenian, Georgian, Neo-Aramaic, and Arabic. Khuzi Arabic is spoken by the Arabs in Khuzestan, and the wider group of Iranian Arabs. Circassian was also once widely spoken by the large Circassian minority, but, due to assimilation, no sizable number of Circassians speak the language anymore.[467][468][469][470]
Percentages of spoken language continue to be a point of debate, most notably regarding the largest and second largest ethnicities in Iran, the Persians and Azerbaijanis. Percentages given by the CIA's World Factbook include 53% Persian, 16% Azerbaijani, 10% Kurdish, 7% Mazenderani and Gilaki, 7% Luri, 2% Turkmen, 2% Balochi, 2% Arabic, and 2% the remainder Armenian, Georgian, Neo-Aramaic, and Circassian.[471]
Religion
| Religion | Percent | Number |
| Muslim | 99.4% | 74,682,938 |
| Christian | 0.2% | 117,704 |
| Zoroastrian | 0.03% | 25,271 |
| Jewish | 0.01% | 8,756 |
| Other | 0.07% | 49,101 |
| Undeclared | 0.4% | 265,899 |
Twelver Shia Islam is the state religion, to which 90–95% of Iranians adhere;[473][474][475][476] about 5–10% are in the Sunni and Sufi branches of Islam.[477] 96% of Iranians believe in Islam, but 14% identify as not religious.[478][page needed]
There is a large population of adherents to Yarsanism, a Kurdish indigenous religion, estimated to be over half a million to one million followers.[479][480][481][482][483] The Baháʼí Faith is not officially recognized and has been subject to official persecution.[484] Since the Revolution, the persecution of Baháʼís has increased.[485][486] Irreligion is not recognized by the government.
Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and the Sunni branch of Islam are officially recognised by the government and have reserved seats in the Parliament.[487] Iran is home to the largest Jewish community in the Muslim World and the Middle East, outside of Israel.[488][489] Around 250,000 to 370,000 Christians reside in Iran, and Christianity is the country's largest recognised minority religion, most are of Armenian background, as well as a sizable minority of Assyrians.[490][491][492][493] The Iranian government has supported the rebuilding and renovation of Armenian churches, and has supported the Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran. In 2019, the government registered the Vank Cathedral, in Isfahan, as a World Heritage Site. Currently three Armenian churches in Iran have been included in the World Heritage List.[494][495]
Education
Education is highly centralised. K–12 is supervised by the Ministry of Education, and higher education is supervised by the Ministry of Science and Technology. Literacy among people aged 15 and older was 86% as of 2016[update], with men (90%) significantly more educated than women (81%). Government expenditure on education is around 4% of GDP.[496]
The requirement to enter into higher education is to have a high school diploma and pass the Iranian University Entrance Exam. Many students do a 1–2-year course of pre-university.[497] Iran's higher education is sanctioned by different levels of diplomas, including an associate degree in two years, a bachelor's degree in four years, and a master's degree in two years, after which another exam allows the candidate to pursue a doctoral programme.[498]
Health
Healthcare is provided by the public-governmental system, the private sector, and NGOs.[500]
Iran is the only country in the world with a legal organ trade.[501] Iran has been able to extend public health preventive services through the establishment of an extensive Primary Health Care Network. As a result, child and maternal mortality rates have fallen significantly, and life expectancy at birth has risen. Iran's medical knowledge rank is 17th globally, and 1st in the Middle East and North Africa. In terms of medical science production index, Iran ranks 16th in the world.[502] Iran is fast emerging as a preferred destination for medical tourism.[358]
The country faces the common problem of other young demographic nations in the region, which is keeping pace with growth of an already huge demand for various public services. An anticipated increase in the population growth rate will increase the need for public health infrastructures and services.[503] About 90% of Iranians have health insurance.[504]
Culture
Art
Iran has one of the richest art heritages in history and been strong in many media including architecture, painting, literature, music, metalworking, stonemasonry, weaving, calligraphy and sculpture. At different times, influences from neighbouring civilizations have been important, and latterly Persian art gave and received major influences as part of the wider styles of Islamic art.
From the Achaemenid Empire of 550–330 BC, the courts of successive dynasties led the style of Persian art, and court-sponsored art left many of the most impressive pieces that remain. The Islamic style of dense decoration, geometrically laid out, developed in Iran into an elegant and harmonious style, combining motifs derived from plants with Chinese motifs such as the cloud-band, and often animals represented at a smaller scale. During the Safavid Empire in the 16th century, this style was used across a variety of media, and diffused from the court artists of the king, most being painters.[506]
By the time of the Sasanians, Iranian art had a renaissance.[507] During the Middle Ages, Sasanian art played a prominent role in the formation of European and Asian mediaeval art.[508][509][510][511] The Safavid era is known as the Golden Age of Iranian art.[512] Safavid art exerted noticeable influences upon the Ottomans, the Mughals, and the Deccans, and was influential through its fashion and garden architecture on 11th–17th-century Europe.
Iran's contemporary art traces its origins to Kamal-ol-molk, a prominent realist painter at the court of the Qajar Empire who affected the norms of painting and adopted a naturalistic style that would compete with photographic works. A new Iranian school of fine art was established by him in 1928, and was followed by the so-called "coffeehouse" style of painting. Iran's avant-garde modernists emerged by the arrival of new western influences during World War II. The contemporary art scene originates in the late 1940s, and Tehran's first modern art gallery, Apadana, was opened in 1949 by Mahmud Javadipur, Hosein Kazemi, and Hushang Ajudani.[513] The new movements received official encouragement by the 1950s,[514] which led to the emergence of artists such as Marcos Grigorian.[515]
Architecture
The history of architecture in Iran dates back to at least 5,000 BC, with characteristic examples distributed over an area from what is now Turkey and Iraq to Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, and from the Caucasus to Zanzibar. The Iranians made early use of mathematics, geometry and astronomy in their architecture, yielding a tradition with structural and aesthetic variety.[516] The guiding motif is its cosmic symbolism.[517]
Without sudden innovations, and despite the trauma of invasions and cultural shocks, it developed a recognizable style distinct from other regions of the Muslim world. Its virtues are "a marked feeling for form and scale; structural inventiveness, especially in vault and dome construction; a genius for decoration with a freedom and success not rivalled in any other architecture".[citation needed] In addition to historic gates, palaces, and mosques, the rapid growth of cities such as Tehran has brought a wave of construction. Iran ranks 7th among UNESCO's list of countries with the most archaeological ruins and attractions from antiquity.[518]
World Heritage Sites
Iran's rich culture and history is reflected by its 27 World Heritage Sites, ranking 1st in the Middle East, and 10th in the world. These include Persepolis, Naghsh-e Jahan Square, Chogha Zanbil, Pasargadae, Golestan Palace, Arg-e Bam, Behistun Inscription, Shahr-e Sukhteh, Susa, Takht-e Soleyman, Hyrcanian forests, the city of Yazd and more. Iran has 24 Intangible Cultural Heritage, or Human treasures, which ranks 5th worldwide.[519][520]
Weaving
Iran's carpet-weaving has its origins in the Bronze Age and is one of the most distinguished manifestations of Iranian art. Carpet weaving is an essential part of Persian culture and Iranian art. Persian rugs and carpets were woven in parallel by nomadic tribes in village and town workshops, and by royal court manufactories. As such, they represent simultaneous lines of tradition, and reflect the history of Iran, Persian culture, and its various peoples. Although the term "Persian carpet" most often refers to pile-woven textiles, flat-woven carpets and rugs like Kilim, Soumak, and embroidered tissues like Suzani are part of the manifold tradition of Persian carpet weaving.
Iran produces three-quarters of the world's handmade carpets, and has 30% of export markets.[521][522] In 2010, the "traditional skills of carpet weaving" in Fars Province and Kashan were inscribed to the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List.[523][524][525] Within the Oriental rugs produced by the countries of the "rug belt", the Persian carpet stands out by the variety and elaborateness of its manifold designs.[526]
Carpets woven in towns and regional centres like Tabriz, Kerman, Ravar, Neyshabour, Mashhad, Kashan, Isfahan, Nain and Qom are characterized by their specific weaving techniques and use of high-quality materials, colours and patterns. Hand-woven Persian rugs and carpets have been regarded as objects of high artistic value and prestige, since they were mentioned by ancient Greek writers.
Literature
Iran's oldest literary tradition is that of Avestan, the Old Iranian sacred language of the Avesta, which consists of the legendary and religious texts of Zoroastrianism and the ancient Iranian religion.[527][528] The Persian language was used and developed through Persianate societies in Asia Minor, Central Asia, and South Asia, leaving extensive influences on Ottoman and Mughal literatures, among others. Iran has several famous mediaeval poets, notably Mawlana, Ferdowsi, Hafez, Sa'adi, Omar Khayyam, and Nezami Ganjavi.[529]
Described as one of the great literatures of humanity,[530] including Goethe's assessment of it as one of the four main bodies of world literature,[531] Persian literature has its roots in surviving works of Middle Persian and Old Persian, the latter of which dates back as far as 522 BCE, the date of the earliest surviving Achaemenid inscription, the Behistun Inscription. The bulk of surviving Persian literature, however, comes from the times following the Muslim conquest in c. 650 CE. After the Abbasids came to power (750 CE), the Iranians became the scribes and bureaucrats of the Islamic Caliphate and, increasingly, also its writers and poets. The New Persian language literature arose and flourished in Khorasan and Transoxiana because of political reasons, early Iranian dynasties of post-Islamic Iran such as the Tahirids and Samanids being based in Khorasan.[532]
Philosophy
.jpg)
Iranian philosophy can be traced back as far as Old Iranian philosophical traditions and thoughts which originated in ancient Indo-Iranian roots and were influenced by Zarathustra's teachings. Throughout Iranian history and due to remarkable political and social changes such as the Arab and Mongol invasions, a wide spectrum of schools of thoughts showed a variety of views on philosophical questions, extending from Old Iranian and mainly Zoroastrianism-related traditions, to schools appearing in the late pre-Islamic era such as Manicheism and Mazdakism as well as post-Islamic schools.
The Cyrus Cylinder is seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by Zoroaster and developed in Zoroastrian schools of the Achaemenid era.[533] Post-Islam Iranian philosophy is characterized by different interactions with the Old Iranian philosophy, the Greek philosophy and with the development of Islamic philosophy. The Illumination School and the Transcendent Philosophy are regarded as two of the main philosophical traditions of that era in Iran. Contemporary Iranian philosophy has been limited in its scope by intellectual repression.[534]
Mythology and folklore
Iranian mythology consists of ancient Iranian folklore and stories of extraordinary beings reflecting on good and evil (Ahura Mazda and Ahriman), actions of the gods, and the exploits of heroes and creatures. The tenth-century Persian poet, Ferdowsi, is the author of the national epic known as the Shahnameh ("Book of Kings"), which is for the most part based on Xwadāynāmag, a Middle Persian compilation of the history of Iranian kings and heroes,[535] as well as the stories and characters of the Zoroastrian tradition, from the texts of the Avesta, the Denkard, the Vendidad and the Bundahishn. Modern scholars study the myths to shed light on the religious and political institutions of not only Iran but of the Greater Iran, which includes regions of West Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, and Transcaucasia where the culture of Iran has had significant influence.
Storytelling has a significant presence in Iranian folklore and culture.[536] In classical Iran, minstrels performed for their audiences at royal courts and in public theatres.[537] A minstrel was referred to by the Parthians as gōsān, and by the Sasanians as huniyāgar.[538] Since the Safavid Empire, storytellers and poetry readers appeared at coffeehouses.[539][540] After the Iranian Revolution, it took until 1985 to found the MCHTH (Ministry of Cultural Heritage, Tourism and Handicrafts),[541] a now heavily centralized organization, supervising all kinds of cultural activities. It held the first scientific meeting on anthropology and folklore in 1990.[542]
Museums
The National Museum of Iran in Tehran is the country's most important cultural institution.[543] As the first and biggest museum in Iran, the institution includes the Museum of Ancient Iran and the Museum of the Islamic Era. The National Museum is the world's most important museum in terms of preservation, display and research of archaeological collections of Iran,[544] and ranks as one of the few most prestigious museums globally in terms of volume, diversity and quality of its monuments.[545]
There are many other popular museums across the country such as the Golestan Palace (World Heritage Site), The Treasury of National Jewels, Reza Abbasi Museum, Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art, Sa'dabad Complex, The Carpet Museum, Abgineh Museum, Pars Museum, Azerbaijan Museum, Hegmataneh Museum, Susa Museum and more. Around 25 million people visited the museums in 2019.[546][547]
Music and dance
_(cropped).JPG)
Iran is the apparent birthplace of the earliest complex instruments, dating to the third millennium BC.[548] The use of angular harps have been documented at Madaktu and Kul-e Farah, with the largest collection of Elamite instruments documented at Kul-e Farah. Xenophon's Cyropaedia mentions singing women at the court of the Achaemenid Empire. Under the Parthian Empire, the gōsān (Parthian for "minstrel") had a prominent role.[549][550]
The history of Sasanian music is better documented than earlier periods and is especially more evident in Avestan texts.[551] By the time of Khosrow II, the Sasanian royal court hosted prominent musicians, namely Azad, Bamshad, Barbad, Nagisa, Ramtin, and Sarkash. Iranian traditional musical instruments include string instruments such as chang (harp), qanun, santur, rud (oud, barbat), tar, dotar, setar, tanbur, and kamanche, wind instruments such as sorna (zurna, karna) and ney, and percussion instruments such as tompak, kus, daf (dayere), and naqare.
Iran's first symphony orchestra, the Tehran Symphony Orchestra, was founded in 1933. By the late 1940s, Ruhollah Khaleqi founded the country's first national music society and established the School of National Music in 1949.[552] Iranian pop music has its origins in the Qajar era.[553] It was significantly developed since the 1950s, using indigenous instruments and forms accompanied by electric guitar and other imported characteristics. Iranian rock emerged in the 1960s and hip hop in the 2000s.[554][555]
Iran has known dance in the forms of music, play, drama or religious rituals since at least the 6th millennium BC. Artifacts with pictures of dancers were found in archaeological prehistoric sites.[556] Genres of dance vary depending on the area, culture, and language of the local people, and can range from sophisticated reconstructions of refined court dances to energetic folk dances.[557] Each group, region, and historical epoch has specific dance styles associated with it. The earliest researched dance from historic Iran is a dance worshipping Mithra. Ancient Persian dance was significantly researched by Greek historian Herodotus. Iran was occupied by foreign powers, causing a slow disappearance of heritage dance traditions.
The Qajar period had an important influence on Persian dance. In this period, a style of dance began to be called "classical Persian dance". Dancers performed artistic dances in court for entertainment purposes such as coronations, marriage celebrations, and Norouz celebrations. In the 20th century, the music came to be orchestrated and dance movement and costuming gained a modernistic orientation to the West.
Fashion and clothing
The exact date of the emergence of weaving in Iran is not yet known, but it is likely to coincide with the emergence of civilization. Ferdowsi and many historians have considered Keyumars to be first to use animals' skin and hair as clothing, while others propose Hushang.[558] Ferdowsi considers Tahmuras to be a kind of textile initiator in Iran. The clothing of ancient Iran took an advanced form, and the fabric and colour of clothing became very important. Depending on the social status, eminence, climate of the region and the season, Persian clothing during the Achaemenian period took various forms. This clothing, in addition to being functional, had an aesthetic role.[558]
Cinema, animation and theatre
A third-millennium BC earthen goblet discovered at the Burnt City in southeast Iran depicts what could be the world's oldest example of animation.[560] The earliest attested Iranian examples of visual representations, however, are traced back to the bas-reliefs of Persepolis, the ritual centre of the Achaemenid Empire.[561]
The first Iranian filmmaker was probably Mirza Ebrahim (Akkas Bashi), the court photographer of Mozaffar-ed-Din of the Qajar Empire. Mirza Ebrahim obtained a camera and filmed the Qajar ruler's visit to Europe. In 1904, Mirza Ebrahim (Sahhaf Bashi) opened the first public cinema in Tehran.[562] The first Iranian feature film, Abi and Rabi, was a silent comedy directed by Ovanes Ohanian in 1930. The first sound one, Lor Girl, was produced by Ardeshir Irani and Abd-ol-Hosein Sepanta in 1932. Iran's animation industry began by the 1950s and was followed by the establishment of the influential Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults in 1965.[563][564] With the screening of the films Qeysar and The Cow, directed by Masoud Kimiai and Dariush Mehrjui respectively in 1969, alternative films set out to establish their status in the film industry and Bahram Beyzai's Downpour and Nasser Taghvai's Tranquility in the Presence of Others followed. Attempts to organise a film festival, which had begun in 1954 within the Golrizan Festival, resulted in the festival of Sepas in 1969. It also resulted in the formation of Tehran's World Film Festival in 1973.[565]
.jpg)
Following the Cultural Revolution, a new age emerged in Iranian cinema, starting with Long Live! by Khosrow Sinai and followed by other directors, such as Abbas Kiarostami and Jafar Panahi. Kiarostami, an acclaimed director, planted Iran firmly on the map of world cinema when he won the Palme d'Or for Taste of Cherry in 1997.[567] The presence of Iranian films in prestigious international festivals, such as Cannes, Venice and Berlin, attracted attention to Iranian films.[568] In 2006, 6 films represented Iranian cinema at Berlin; critics considered this a remarkable event in Iranian cinema.[569][570] Asghar Farhadi, an Iranian director, has received a Golden Globe Award and two Academy Awards, representing Iran for Best Foreign Language Film in 2012 and 2017, with A Separation and The Salesman.[571][572][573] In 2020, Ashkan Rahgozar's "The Last Fiction" became the first representative of Iranian animated cinema in the competition section, in Best Animated Feature and Best Picture categories at the Academy Awards.[574][575][576][577]
The oldest Iranian initiation of theatre can be traced to ancient epic ceremonial theatres such as Sug-e Siāvuڑ ("mourning of Siāvaڑ"), as well as dances and theatre narrations of Iranian mythological tales reported by Herodotus and Xenophon. Iran's traditional theatrical genres include Baqqāl-bāzi ("grocer play", a form of slapstick comedy), Ruhowzi (or Taxt-howzi, comedy performed over a courtyard pool covered with boards), Siāh-bāzi (the central comedian appears in blackface), Sāye-bāzi (shadow play), Xeyme-ڑab-bāzi (marionette), and Arusak-bāzi (puppetry), and Ta'zie (religious tragedy plays).[578]
The Roudaki Hall is home to the Tehran Symphony Orchestra, the Tehran Opera Orchestra, and the Iranian National Ballet Company, and was officially renamed Vahdat Hall after the Revolution.
Media
Iran's largest media corporation is the state-owned IRIB. The Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance is responsible for the cultural policy, including activities regarding communications and information.[579] Most of the newspapers published in Iran are in Persian, the country's official and national language. The country's most widely circulated periodicals are based in Tehran, among which are Etemad, Ettela'at, Kayhan, Hamshahri, Resalat, and Shargh.[362] Tehran Times, Iran Daily, and Financial Tribune are among the famous English-language newspapers based in Iran.
Iran ranks 17th among countries by number of Internet users. Google Search is Iran's most widely used search engine and Instagram is the most popular online social networking service.[580] Direct access to many worldwide mainstream websites has been blocked in Iran, including Facebook, which has been blocked since 2009. About 90% of Iran's e-commerce takes place on the Iranian online store Digikala, which has around 750,000 visitors per day and is the most visited online store in the Middle East.[581]
Cuisine
Iranian main dishes include varieties of kebab, pilaf, stew (khoresh), soup and āsh, and omelette. Lunch and dinner meals are commonly accompanied by side dishes such as plain yogurt or mast-o-khiar, sabzi, salad Shirazi, and torshi, and might follow dishes such as borani, Mirza Qasemi, or kashk e bademjan. In Iranian culture, tea is widely consumed.[582][583] Iran is the world's seventh major tea producer.[584] One of Iran's most popular desserts is the falude.[585] There is also the popular saffron ice cream, known as Bastani Sonnati ("traditional ice cream"),[586] which is sometimes accompanied with carrot juice.[587] Iran is also famous for its caviar.[588]
Typical Iranian main dishes are combinations of rice with meat, vegetables and nuts. Herbs are frequently used, along with fruits such as plums, pomegranates, quince, prunes, apricots and raisins. Characteristic Iranian spices and flavourings such as saffron, cardamom, and dried lime and other sources of sour flavoring, cinnamon, turmeric and parsley are mixed and used in various dishes.
Sports
Iran is the most likely birthplace of polo,[589][590][591] locally known as Chogan, with its earliest records attributed to the ancient Medes.[592] Freestyle wrestling is traditionally considered the national sport, and Iran's wrestlers have been world champions many times. Iran's traditional wrestling, called koڑti e pahlevāni ("heroic wrestling"), is registered on UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage list.[593] Iran's National Olympic Committee was founded in 1947. Wrestlers and weightlifters have achieved the country's highest records at the Olympics. In 1974, Iran became the first country in West Asia to host the Asian Games.[594][595][596]
As a mountainous country, Iran is a venue for skiing, snowboarding, hiking, rock climbing,[597] and mountain climbing.[598][599] It is home to ski resorts, the most famous being Tochal, Dizin, and Shemshak.[600] Dizin is the largest, and authorised by FIS to administer international competitions.[601]
Football is the most popular sport, with the men's national team having won the Asian Cup three times. The men's team ranks 2nd in Asia and 20th in the FIFA World Rankings as of April 2024[update].[602] The Azadi Stadium in Tehran is the largest association football stadium in West Asia and on a list of top-20 stadiums in the world.[603] Volleyball is the second most popular sport.[604][605] Having won the 2011 and 2013 Asian Men's Volleyball Championships, the men's national team is the 2nd strongest in Asia, and 15th in the FIVB World Rankings as of January 2024[update]. Basketball is also popular, with the men's national team having won three Asian Championships since 2007.[606]
Observances
Iran's official New Year begins with Nowruz, an ancient Iranian tradition celebrated annually on the vernal equinox and described as the Persian New Year.[608] It was registered on the UNESCO's list of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2009.[609][610][611][612] On the eve of the last Wednesday of the preceding year, as a prelude to Nowruz, the ancient festival of بārڑanbe Suri celebrates Ātar ("fire") by performing rituals such as jumping over bonfires and lighting fireworks.[613][614]
Yaldā, another ancient tradition,[615] commemorates the ancient goddess Mithra and marks the longest night of the year on the eve of the winter solstice (usually on 20 or 21 December),[616][617] during which families gather to recite poetry and eat fruits.[618][619] In some regions of Mazanderan and Markazi,[620][621][622][623] there is a midsummer festival, Tirgān,[624] which is observed on Tir 13 (2 or 3 July) as a celebration of water.[625][626]
Islamic annual events such as Ramezān, Eid e Fetr, and Ruz e Āڑurā are marked by the country's population, Christian traditions such as Noel,[627] elle ye Ruze, and Eid e Pāk are observed by the Christian communities, Jewish traditions such as Hanukā[628] and Eid e Fatir (Pesah)[629][630] are observed by the Jewish communities, and Zoroastrian traditions such as Sade[631] and Mehrgān are observed by the Zoroastrians.
Public holidays
With 26, Iran has one of the world's highest number of public holidays.[632][633] It ranks 1st in the world with the most paid leave days: 52.[634][635] Iran's official calendar is the Solar Hejri calendar, beginning at the vernal equinox in the Northern Hemisphere.[636] Each of the 12 months of the Solar Hejri calendar correspond with a zodiac sign, and the length of each year is solar.[636] Alternatively, the Lunar Hejri calendar is used to indicate Islamic events, and the Gregorian calendar marks international events.
Legal public holidays based on the Iranian solar calendar include the cultural celebrations of Nowruz (Farvardin 1–4; 21–24 March) and Sizdebedar (Farvardin 13; 2 April), and the political events of Islamic Republic Day (Farvardin 12; 1 April), the death of Ruhollah Khomeini (Khordad 14; 4 June), the Khordad 15 event (Khordad 15; 5 June), the anniversary of the Iranian Revolution (Bahman 22; 10 February), and Oil Nationalization Day (Esfand 29; 19 March).[637]
Lunar Islamic public holidays include Tasua (Muharram 9), Ashura (Muharram 10), Arba'een (Safar 20), Muhammad's death (Safar 28), the death of Ali al-Ridha (Safar 29 or 30), the birthday of Muhammad (Rabi-al-Awwal 17), the death of Fatimah (Jumada-al-Thani 3), the birthday of Ali (Rajab 13), Muhammad's first revelation (Rajab 27), the birthday of Muhammad al-Mahdi (Sha'ban 15), the death of Ali (Ramadan 21), Eid al-Fitr (Shawwal 1–2), the death of Ja'far al-Sadiq (Shawwal 25), Eid al-Qurban (Zulhijja 10), and Eid al-Qadir (Zulhijja 18).[637]
See also
Explanatory notes
References
Footnotes
Citations
- ^ Jeroen Temperman (2010). State-Religion Relationships and Human Rights Law: Towards a Right to Religiously Neutral Governance. Brill. pp. 87–. ISBN 978-90-04-18148-9. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
The official motto of Iran is [the] Takbir ('God is the Greatest' or 'God is Great'). Transliteration Allahu Akbar. As referred to in art. 18 of the constitution of Iran (1979). The de facto motto however is: 'Independence, freedom, the Islamic Republic.'
- ^ "Surface water and surface water change". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Archived from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
- ^ "Iran Population (2024) – Worldometer". Archived from the original on 23 November 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2024.
- ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, April 2024 Edition. (Iran)". International Monetary Fund. Archived from the original on 16 April 2024. Retrieved 20 April 2024.
- ^ "Gini Index coefficient". The World Factbook. Retrieved 24 September 2024.
- ^ "Human Development Report 2023/24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. p. 289. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
- ^ a b "Definition of IRAN". merriam-webster.com. Archived from the original on 24 September 2022. Retrieved 24 September 2022.
- ^ "Iran".
- ^ a b MacKenzie 1998.
- ^ Schmitt 1987.
- ^ Laroche. 1957. Proto-Iranian *arya- descends from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) *ar-yo-, a yo-adjective to a root *ar "to assemble skillfully", present in Greek harma "chariot", Greek aristos, (as in "aristocracy"), Latin ars "art", etc.
- ^ Shahbazi 2004.
- ^ Wilson, Arnold (2012). "The Middle Ages: Fars". The Persian Gulf (RLE Iran A). Routledge. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-136-84105-7.
- ^ Borjian, Maryam; Borjian, Habib (2011). "Plights of Persian in the Modernization Era". In Fishman, Joshua A; García, Ofelia (eds.). Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: Volume 2: The Success-Failure Continuum in Language and Ethnic Identity Efforts. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 266. ISBN 978-0-19-539245-6.
'Iran' and 'Persia' are synonymous. The former has always been used by Iranian-speaking peoples themselves, while the latter has served as the international name of the country in various languages, ever since it was introduced by the Greeks some twenty-five centuries ago. In 1935, however, the nationalist administration under Reza Shah Pahlavi (see below) made a successful effort to replace 'Persia' with 'Iran,' apparently to underline the nation's 'Aryan' pedigree to the international community. The latter term used to signify all branches of the Indo-European language family (and even the 'race' of their speakers), but was practically abandoned after World War II.
- ^ Lewis, Geoffrey (1984). "The naming of names". British Society for Middle Eastern Studies Bulletin. 11 (2): 121–124. doi:10.1080/13530198408705394. ISSN 0305-6139.
- ^ Persia Archived 15 June 2022 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopædia Britannica, "The term Persia was used for centuries ... [because] use of the name was gradually extended by the ancient Greeks and other peoples to apply to the whole Iranian plateau."
- ^ a b "Your Gateway to Knowledge". Knowledge Zone. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
- ^ "Fars Province, Iran". Persia Advisor. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
- ^ Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Archived from the original on 10 April 2010. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
- ^ "Eight Thousand Years of History in Fars Province, Iran". Research Gate. 12 May 2005. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
- ^ "From Cyrus to Alexander : a history of the Persian Empire | WorldCat.org". search.worldcat.org. Archived from the original on 3 April 2024. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
- ^ Austin, Peter (2008). One Thousand Languages: Living, Endangered, and Lost. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25560-9.
- ^ Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-09172-6.
- ^ "Persia Changes Its Name; To Be 'Iran' From Mar. 22". The New York Times. 1 January 1935. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 26 December 2018.
- ^ "Persia or Iran, a brief history". Art-arena.com. Archived from the original on 23 May 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
- ^ Christoph Marcinkowski (2010). Shi'ite Identities: Community and Culture in Changing Social Contexts. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 83. ISBN 978-3-643-80049-7. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
The 'historical lands of Iran' – 'Greater Iran' – were always known in the Persian language as Irānshahr or Irānzamīn.
- ^ Frye, Richard Nelson (October 1962). "Reitzenstein and Qumrân Revisited by an Iranian". The Harvard Theological Review. 55 (4): 261–268. doi:10.1017/S0017816000007926. JSTOR 1508723. S2CID 162213219.
I use the term Iran in an historical context [...] Persia would be used for the modern state, more or less equivalent to "western Iran". I use the term "Greater Iran" to mean what I suspect most Classicists and ancient historians really mean by their use of Persia – that which was within the political boundaries of States ruled by Iranians.
- ^ Richard Frye (2012). Persia (RLE Iran A). Routledge. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-136-84154-5. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
This 'greater Iran' included and still includes part of the Caucasus Mountains, Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Iraq; for Kurds, Baluchis, Afghans, Tajiks, Ossetes, and other smaller groups are Iranians
- ^ Farrokh, Kaveh. Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War. ISBN 1-84603-108-7
- ^ "Iran". Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 7 February 2017.
- ^ "Iran". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 10 May 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2017.
- ^ "How do you say Iran?". Voice of America. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2017.
- ^ People, "New evidence: modern civilization began in Iran", 10 Aug 2007 Archived 24 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved 1 October 2007
- ^ Azadpour, M. "HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH". Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on 11 April 2015. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
- ^ https://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9371723 Archived 2008-04-29 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopædia Britannica Concise Encyclopedia Article: Media
- ^ Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 214. ISBN 978-1-107-50718-0.
- ^ R. M. Savory, "Safavids", Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd edition
- ^ "The Islamic World to 1600", Applied History Research Group, University of Calgary, 1998 Archived 2008-06-12 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved 1 October 2007
- ^ Dowling, Timothy C. (2014). Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond. 2 volumes. ABC-CLIO. pp. 728–729. ISBN 978-1-59884-948-6.
- ^ "Iran Islamic Republic", Archived 2006-03-16 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopædia Britannica, retrieved 23 January 2008
- ^ "International relations / The Iranian revolution". Encyclopædia Britannica. 23 January 2008. Archived from the original on 15 December 2007. Retrieved 26 September 2024. (subscription required)
- ^ "Ahmadinejad critic Larijani re-elected Iran speaker". BBC News. 5 June 2012. Archived from the original on 10 May 2024. Retrieved 10 May 2024.
- ^ Borger, Julian; Dehghan, Saeed Kamali (19 September 2013). "Hassan Rouhani sets out his vision for a new and free Iran". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 12 November 2023. Retrieved 10 May 2024.
- ^ Kutsch, Tom (14 July 2015). "Iran, world powers strike historic nuclear deal". Aljazeera America. Archived from the original on 15 July 2015. Retrieved 15 July 2015.
- ^ Brewer, Eric (25 June 2024). "Iran's New Nuclear Threat". Foreign Affairs. ISSN 0015-7120. Retrieved 2 July 2024.
- ^ "U.S. killing of Iran's second most powerful man risks regional conflagration". Reuters. 4 January 2020. Archived from the original on 18 April 2024. Retrieved 7 May 2024.
- ^ Carolien Roelants, Iran expert of NRC Handelsblad, in a debate on Buitenhof on Dutch television, 5 January 2020.
- ^ Never-before-seen video of the attack on Al Asad Airbase, 28 February 2021, archived from the original on 23 February 2022, retrieved 8 January 2024
- ^ "109 US troops diagnosed with brain injuries from Iran attack". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 7 April 2024. Retrieved 7 April 2024.
- ^ "Pentagon admits 109 brain injuries in Iran attack – DW – 02/10/2020". dw.com. Archived from the original on 7 April 2024. Retrieved 7 April 2024.
- ^ Starr, Barbara (10 February 2020). "Over 100 US troops have been diagnosed with traumatic brain injuries following Iran strike | CNN Politics". CNN. Archived from the original on 7 April 2024. Retrieved 7 April 2024.
- ^ "Several killed in Israeli strike on Iranian consulate in Damascus". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 30 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "Israeli strike on Iran's consulate in Syria killed 2 generals and 5 other officers, Iran says". AP News. 1 April 2024. Archived from the original on 19 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ center, This aerial view shows Tel Aviv's Ben Gurion International Airport in the; April 5, the surrounding urban areas in Lodin central Israel on; Images, 2024-ROY ISSA/AFP via Getty (15 April 2024). "How Iran's attack on Israel is disrupting air traffic – Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East". www.al-monitor.com. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Toossi, Sina (2 May 2024). "Iran Has Defined Its Red Line With Israel". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "What was in wave of Iranian attacks and how were they thwarted?". 14 April 2024. Archived from the original on 14 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ Borger, Julian (14 April 2024). "US and UK forces help shoot down Iranian drones over Jordan, Syria and Iraq". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 14 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "Macron: France intercepted Iranian drones 'at Jordan's request'". POLITICO. 15 April 2024. Archived from the original on 15 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "The largest drone attack in history". iranpress.com. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ Motamedi, Maziar. "'True Promise': Why and how did Iran launch a historic attack on Israel?". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 14 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "Iran launches first-ever direct attack on Israel". ABC7 New York. 13 April 2024. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "How Israel could respond to Iran's drone and missile assault". France 24. 18 April 2024. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ Johny, Stanly (14 April 2024). "Analysis | By attacking Israel, Iran turns shadow war into direct conflict". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Archived from the original on 14 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "Masoud Pezeshkian, a heart surgeon who rose to power in parliament, now Iran's president-elect". AP News. 6 July 2024. Retrieved 6 July 2024.
- ^ Fassihi, Farnaz; Vinograd, Cassandra (6 July 2024). "Reformist Candidate Wins Iran's Presidential Election". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 6 July 2024.
- ^ "Iran's Strategy in the Strait of Hormuz". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
- ^ "CIA – The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Archived from the original on 27 January 2021. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
- ^ "Which country has the most earthquakes?". United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 22 May 2021. Retrieved 22 May 2021.
- ^ "هر ده سال، یک زلزله ۷ ریشتری در کشور رخ میدهد | خبرگزاری ایلنا". Ilna.news. 13 October 2012. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 5 August 2022.
- ^ "The 5 Hottest Deserts in the World". MapQuest Travel. 9 November 2009. Archived from the original on 31 December 2023. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
- ^ "Where Is the Hottest Place on Earth?". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. 5 April 2012. Archived from the original on 3 November 2020. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
- ^ "The hottest place on earth – Secret Compass". 22 February 2017. Archived from the original on 31 December 2023. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
- ^ Sand-boarding.com (10 August 2023). "The Hottest Deserts on Earth Are Too Hot to Handle". Surf the Sand. Archived from the original on 31 December 2023. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
- ^ "Geography | Iranian Student Organization (IrSO) | Nebraska". unl.edu. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
- ^ "IRAN TODAY – Geography..." allventure.com. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran ecotourism | Iran Ecotour guide training course". arasbaran.org. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran Islands Tours, Top 10 Islands You Must See in Iran – Iran Travel Information". Archived from the original on 13 December 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ Motamedi, Maziar. "Iran's IRGC runs military drills on disputed islands claimed by UAE". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran's Revolutionary Guard Runs Drill on Disputed Islands in Persian Gulf". Voice of America. 2 August 2023. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
- ^ "Strait of Hormuz – About the Strait". The Strauss Center. Archived from the original on 31 December 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ "Why is the Strait of Hormuz so strategically important?". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 22 January 2024. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ "The Strait of Hormuz Is at the Center of Iran Tensions Again. Here's How the Narrow Waterway Gained Wide Importance". TIME. 23 July 2019. Archived from the original on 14 December 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ "Strait of Hormuz: the world's most important oil artery". Routers. 23 January 2024. Archived from the original on 5 December 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ "The Strait of Hormuz is the world's most important oil transit chokepoint – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". www.eia.gov. Archived from the original on 22 January 2024. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ "UAE demands return of three islands seized by Iran". Arab News. 25 September 2022. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ "United Arab Emirates calls on Iran to take dispute over islands to UN court | UN News". news.un.org. 26 September 2011. Archived from the original on 22 January 2024. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ "UAE official calls for international action to end "Iranian occupation" of disputed islands". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 27 July 2021. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran summons Russian envoy over statement on Persian Gulf disputed islands". AP News. 24 December 2023. Archived from the original on 31 December 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ "Spokesman: Iran's Sovereignty over Three Persian Gulf Islands Undeniable | Farsnews Agency". www.farsnews.ir. Archived from the original on 22 January 2024. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ "Tehran dismisses UAE claim to three Iranian islands". Tehran Times. 25 September 2023. Archived from the original on 22 January 2024. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ "UAE-Iran islands dispute complicates regional diplomacy | Responsible Statecraft". responsiblestatecraft.org. Archived from the original on 22 January 2024. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ "Hormozgan Cultural Heritage, Handcrafts & Tourism Organization". Hormozgan Cultural Heritage, Handcrafts & Tourism Organization. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
- ^ "Qeshm Island Geopark Becomes Global After Receiving UNESCO Green Card – Iran Front Page". ifpnews.com. 6 May 2017. Archived from the original on 2 June 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ "Qeshm island Geopark – Home". www.qeshmgeopark.ir. Archived from the original on 4 December 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ Visit of Qeshm UNESCO Global Geopark, 12 August 2021, archived from the original on 27 June 2022, retrieved 22 January 2024
- ^ "Namakdan Salt Cave | One of the Longest | Qeshm Attraction | Apochi.com". Apochi. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ "Namakdan Salt Cave". IUGS. Archived from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ "Namakdan Salt Cave: Qeshm's World-Famous Wonder |TAP Persia". 13 April 2023. Archived from the original on 2 June 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ www.sirang.com, Sirang Rasaneh. "Namakdan Salt Cave 2024 | Qeshm Island, Hormozgan | Sights – ITTO". itto.org | Iran Tourism & Touring. Archived from the original on 11 December 2023. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- ^ Kiyanoosh Kiyani Haftlang; Kiyānūsh Kiyānī Haft Lang (2003). The Book of Iran: A Survey of the Geography of Iran. Alhoda UK. p. 17. ISBN 978-964-94491-3-5.
- ^ "Weather and Climate: Iran, average monthly Rainfall, Sunshine, Temperature, Humidity, Wind Speed". World Weather and Climate Information. Archived from the original on 22 September 2015. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
- ^ Moghtader, Michelle (3 August 2014). "Farming reforms offer hope for Iran's water crisis". Reuters. Archived from the original on 7 August 2014. Retrieved 4 August 2014.
- ^ Sharon E. Nicholson (2011). Dryland Climatology. Cambridge University Press. p. 367. ISBN 978-1-139-50024-1.
- ^ R. Nagarajan (2010). Drought Assessment. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 383. ISBN 978-90-481-2500-5.
- ^ "Iranian Journal of Forest – 4th National Forest Conference of Iran". www.ijf-isaforestry.ir. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ Kernan, Henry S. (1957). "Forest Management in Iran". Middle East Journal. 11 (2): 198–202. ISSN 0026-3141. JSTOR 4322899. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ Sotoudeh Foumani, B.; Rostami Shahraji, T.; Mohammadi Limaei, S. (1 June 2017). "Role of political power in forest administration policy of Iran". Caspian Journal of Environmental Sciences. 15 (2): 181–199. doi:10.22124/cjes.2017.2374. ISSN 1735-3033. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ "Iran Wildlife and Nature – including flora and fauna and their natural habitats". www.aitotours.com. Archived from the original on 5 May 2024. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
- ^ April Fast (2005). Iran: The Land. Crabtree Publishing Company. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-7787-9315-1.
- ^ Eskandar Firouz (2005). The Complete Fauna of Iran. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-946-2.
- ^ Guggisberg, C.A.W. (1961). Simba: The Life of the Lion. Howard Timmins, Cape Town.
- ^ Firouz, Eskander (14 October 2005). The Complete Fauna of Iran. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-85043-946-2.
- ^ Humphreys, Patrick; Kahrom, Esmail (31 December 1997). The Lion and the Gazelle: The Mammals and Birds of Iran. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-86064-229-6.
- ^ "In jab at rivals, Rouhani says Iran protests about more than economy". Reuters. 8 January 2018. Archived from the original on 13 January 2018. Retrieved 1 February 2018.
- ^ Al-awsat, Asharq (25 September 2017). "Khamenei Orders New Supervisory Body to Curtail Government – ASHARQ AL-AWSAT English Archive". Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 23 October 2017.
- ^ "Khamenei orders controversial retirement law amended". Al-Monitor. 5 December 2018. Archived from the original on 7 December 2018. Retrieved 12 December 2018.
- ^ "Reuters Investigates – Assets of the Ayatollah". Reuters. 11 November 2013. Archived from the original on 12 November 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
- ^ Steve Stecklow, Babak Dehghanpisheh (22 January 2014). "Exclusive: Khamenei's business empire gains from Iran sanctions relief". Reuters. Archived from the original on 15 January 2018. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
- ^ Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. "Iran – The Constitution". Archived from the original on 23 September 2006. Retrieved 14 April 2006.
- ^ Al-awsat, Asharq (15 December 2015). "Controversy in Iran Surrounding the Supervision of the Supreme Leader's Performance – ASHARQ AL-AWSAT". Archived from the original on 25 June 2016. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
- ^ "Myths and Realities of Iran's Parliamentary Elections". The Atlantic. 23 February 2016. Archived from the original on 16 February 2017. Retrieved 26 February 2017.
- ^ "Anomalies in Iran's Assembly of Experts Election – The Washington Institute for Near East Policy". Washingtoninstitute.org. 22 March 2016. Archived from the original on 17 August 2016. Retrieved 26 February 2017.
- ^ Majid Rafizadeh (24 June 2016). "Why Khamenei wants the next Supreme Leader to be 'revolutionary'". AlArabiya News. Archived from the original on 4 February 2017. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
- ^ "Constitution of Iran". Switzerland: University of Bern. Archived from the original on 21 August 2018. Retrieved 2 April 2016.
- ^ "Democracy Index 2022: Frontline democracy and the battle for Ukraine" (PDF). Economist Intelligence Unit. 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 March 2023. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
- ^ Juan José Linz, Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes Archived 2020-07-26 at the Wayback Machine (Lynne Rienner, 2000), p. 36.
- ^ "Council of Guardians | Definition, Role, Selection, & History | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 9 June 2024. Retrieved 6 July 2024.
- ^ Gladstone, Rick (5 August 2021). "Is Iran's Supreme Leader Truly Supreme? Yes, but President Is No Mere Figurehead". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 27 September 2021.
- ^ "Iran The Presidency". Photius.com. Archived from the original on 22 June 2008. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ "Leadership in the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran". Leader.ir. Archived from the original on 12 June 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
- ^ "Iran's Khamenei hits out at Rafsanjani in rare public rebuke". Middle East Eye. Archived from the original on 4 April 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2017.
- ^ "Asking for a Miracle: Khamenei's Economic Plan". IranWire | خانه. Archived from the original on 22 October 2019. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
- ^ "Iranian lawmakers warn Ahmadinejad to accept intelligence chief as political feud deepens". CP. Archived from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 21 May 2017.
- ^ "BBC NEWS – Middle East – Iranian vice-president 'sacked'". BBC. 25 July 2009. Archived from the original on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
- ^ Amir Saeed Vakil, Pouryya Askary (2004). constitution in now law like order. p. 362.
- ^ "Iran – The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers". Countrystudies.us. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ "The Structure of Power in Iran". Iranchamber.com. 24 June 2005. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ Chibli Mallat (2004). The Renewal of Islamic Law: Muhammad Baqer As-Sadr, Najaf and the Shi'i International. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53122-1. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
- ^ and agencies (24 May 2005). "Iran reverses ban on reformist candidates". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
- ^ Article 98 of the constitution
- ^ Articles 96 and 94 of the constitution.
- ^ "THE GUARDIAN COUNCIL". Iran Data Portal. Political Institutions. Archived from the original on 19 May 2022. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
- ^ Article 99 of the constitution
- ^ Article 4 Archived 9 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Iran's Multifaceted Foreign Policy". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ "Supreme National Security Council of Iran | The Iran Primer". iranprimer.usip.org. 1 April 2019. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ "Inside Iran – The Structure Of Power In Iran". pbs.org. Archived from the original on 7 May 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ Thaler, David E.; Nader, Alireza; Chubin, Shahram; Green, Jerrold D.; Lynch, Charlotte; Wehrey, Frederic (2010), "Formal Structures of the Islamic Republic", Mullahs, Guards, and Bonyads, An Exploration of Iranian Leadership Dynamics, RAND Corporation, pp. 21–36, ISBN 978-0-8330-4773-1, JSTOR 10.7249/mg878osd.10, archived from the original on 8 May 2024, retrieved 8 May 2024
- ^ "Iran's president appoints new official in powerful security post, replacing longtime incumbent". AP News. 22 May 2023. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ "Deep Dive: Reshuffle at Iran's Supreme National Security Council". Amwaj.media. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ "Iran's switch of top security official hints at end of nuclear talks". Nikkei Asia. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ "Iranian Supreme National Security Council: Latest News, Photos, Videos on Iranian Supreme National Security Council". NDTV.com. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ "IFES Election Guide". Electionguide.org. Archived from the original on 16 June 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ "Iran – The Council of Guardians". Countrystudies.us. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ IRANIAN LEGISLATURE APPROVES FUNDS FOR GASOLINE IMPORTS Archived 1 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine provides an example the need for approval of the Guardian Council.
- ^ Dehghan, Saeed Kamali (15 April 2016). "Iran bars female MP for 'shaking hands with unrelated man'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 11 August 2017. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
- ^ "Minoo Khaleghi summoned to court". 15 May 2016. Archived from the original on 11 August 2017. Retrieved 10 August 2017.
- ^ "خانه ملت". mellat.majlis.ir. Archived from the original on 5 July 2009. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
- ^ "Expediency council". BBC News. Archived from the original on 5 March 2008. Retrieved 3 February 2008.
- ^ Article 112 Archived 9 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Axel Tschentscher, LL.M. "ICL > Iran > Constitution". Servat.unibe.ch. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
- ^ "Iran Chamber Society: The Structure of Power in Iran". Iranchamber.com. 24 June 2005. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ IRNA, Online Edition. "Paris for further cultural cooperation with Iran". Archived from the original on 23 October 2007. Retrieved 21 October 2007.
- ^ Seyed Hossein Mousavian; Shahir Shahidsaless (2014). Iran and the United States: An Insider's View on the Failed Past and the Road to Peace. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-62892-870-9.
- ^ Qaed, Anas Al (25 September 2023). "Unseen Tensions: The Undercurrents of Iran-Turkey Relations in the South Caucasus". Gulf International Forum. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "The Cold War Between Turkey and Iran – Foreign Policy Research Institute". www.fpri.org. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ Azizi, Hamidreza; اevik, Salim (2022). "Turkish and Iranian Involvement in Iraq and Syria". SWP Comment (in German). doi:10.18449/2022c58. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "Iran and Turkey Agree on Opposing Kurdish Independence, but Not Much More". FDD. 25 August 2017. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "Five things to know about the blockade against Qatar". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 30 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "A New Phase in Cooperation between Tajikistan and Iran". Archived from the original on 28 March 2023. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ Lal, Rollie (2006), "Iran", Central Asia and Its Asian Neighbors, Security and Commerce at the Crossroads (1 ed.), RAND Corporation, pp. 11–18, ISBN 978-0-8330-3878-4, JSTOR 10.7249/mg440af.10, archived from the original on 8 May 2024, retrieved 8 May 2024
- ^ uz, Daryo (11 June 2023). "Iranian President to visit to Tajikistan to bolster bilateral relations". Daryo.uz. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ "Iran Extends Influence in Central Asia's Tajikistan". Voice of America. 1 November 2011. Archived from the original on 21 May 2023. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ Bakri, Nada (27 August 2011). "Iran Calls on Syria to Recognize Citizens' Demands". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2 March 2016. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "Syria and Iran: What's Behind the Enduring Alliance?". Brookings. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ Yan, Holly (29 August 2013). "Syria allies: Why Russia, Iran and China are standing by the regime". CNN. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ "Why Iran and Russia can dodge Western sanctions – DW – 04/26/2024". dw.com. Archived from the original on 30 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "Iran, Russia discuss developing oil, gas fields". Mehr News Agency. 3 March 2024. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "US asks Iran to stop selling drones to Russia". www.ft.com. Archived from the original on 17 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ Bertrand, Natasha (25 July 2023). "Iran helping Russia build drone stockpile that is expected to be 'orders of magnitude larger' than previous arsenal, US says | CNN Politics". CNN. Archived from the original on 30 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "Timeline: Iran-Russia Collaboration on Drones | The Iran Primer". iranprimer.usip.org. 1 March 2023. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ Iddon, Paul. "Iran Might Receive Its First Su-35 Flanker Fighters From Russia Next Week". Forbes. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ Valvo, Giovanni (14 December 2012). "Syria, Iran And The Future Of The CSTO – Analysis". Eurasia Review. Archived from the original on 9 May 2023. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "Iran-China to sign 25-year cooperation pact: Tehran". Arab News. 27 March 2021. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ Garver, John W. (11 December 2006). "Twenty Centuries of Friendly Cooperation: The Sino-Iranian Relationship". The Globalist. Archived from the original on 29 May 2016. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ Fishberg, Maurice (1907). Materials for the Physical Anthropology of the Eastern European Jews. New Era Print. Company.
- ^ Azad, Shirzad (2012). "Iran and the Two Koreas: A Peculiar Pattern of Foreign Policy". The Journal of East Asian Affairs. 26 (2): 163–192. ISSN 1010-1608. JSTOR 23595522. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "Profile: Iran's Revolutionary Guards" Archived 27 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine. BBC News. 18 October 2009.
- ^ "اخبار سیاسی ۲۶ اسفند؛ کمک رهبرانقلاب به زندانیان نیازمند/تایید کاهش مدت سربازی". ایسنا (in Persian). 16 March 2024. Archived from the original on 16 March 2024. Retrieved 16 March 2024.
- ^ روزبهی, محدثه (16 March 2024). "تایید مصوبه کاهش مدت سربازی در شورای نگهبان". پایگاه خبری اختبار (in Persian). Archived from the original on 16 March 2024. Retrieved 16 March 2024.
- ^ Hussain, Murtaza. "Why war with Iran would spell disaster". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 29 February 2024. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
- ^ Jones, Seth G. (2020). Regular Military Power (Report). Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS). pp. 19–27. JSTOR resrep29480.7. Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
- ^ "The Largest Armies in the World". WorldAtlas. 12 February 2024. Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 18 March 2024.
- ^ Kaskanis, Angelos (2 December 2023). "Iran's Military Capabilities: Exploring the Power of the". Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 18 March 2024.
- ^ Aryan, Hossein (5 February 2009). "Pillar Of The State". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Archived from the original on 23 September 2016. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
- ^ "ارتش بیست میلیونی". www.imam-khomeini.ir. Archived from the original on 15 March 2024. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
- ^ "Iran's Revolutionary Guards: Powerful group with wide regional reach". DH. 3 April 2024. Archived from the original on 15 March 2024. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
- ^ "Iran's Basij Force – The Mainstay Of Domestic Security". Radio Free Europe. 15 June 2024. Archived from the original on 23 September 2016. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
- ^ "2024 Iran Military Strength". globalfirepower.com. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
- ^ Spirlet, Sinéad Baker, Thibault. "The world's most powerful militaries in 2023, ranked". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 24 December 2023. Retrieved 28 December 2023.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "General Ghorbani: Iran helicopter fleet, strongest in Middle East". iranpress.com. Archived from the original on 24 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
- ^ "سازمان صنایع دریایی – پایگاه اطلاعات دریایی ایران". 13 August 2021. Archived from the original on 13 August 2021. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
- ^ "Iran – Army Navy Air Force | budget, equipment, personnel". ArmedForces. Archived from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
- ^ "Iran Boosts Military Budget To Stand Among Top 15". Iran International. 26 April 2022. Archived from the original on 10 December 2023. Retrieved 10 December 2023.
- ^ "Iran Military Spending=Defense Budget 1960–2023". Macrotrends. 10 December 2023. Archived from the original on 10 December 2023. Retrieved 10 December 2023.
- ^ "World military expenditure passes $2 trillion for first time". Sipri. 25 April 2022. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 10 December 2023.
- ^ Hossein Askari; Amin Mohseni; Shahrzad Daneshvar (2010). The Militarization of the Persian Gulf: An Economic Analysis. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-84980-186-7.
- ^ "Iran tests new long-range missile". BBC. 12 November 2008. Archived from the original on 14 June 2018. Retrieved 12 November 2008.
- ^ Motamedi, Maziar (6 June 2023). "Fattah: Iran unveils its first hypersonic missile". Aljazeera. Archived from the original on 6 June 2023. Retrieved 6 December 2023.
- ^ "Are the Iran nuclear talks heading for a deal?" Archived 17 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine. BBC News Online. Retrieved: 4 August 2016.
- ^ "Ex-official: Iran is world's 6th missile power". AP News. 18 August 2013. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
- ^ "Iran becoming global drone producer on back of Ukraine war, says US". The Guardian. 8 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
- ^ "Iran is becoming a drone superpower". The Hill. 17 March 2024. Archived from the original on 23 January 2024. Retrieved 17 March 2024.
- ^ "Iran's Better, Stealthier Drones Are Remaking Global Warfare". Bloomberg.com. 8 April 2024. Archived from the original on 10 April 2024. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
- ^ "رادیو زمانه هک شد". BBC. 21 December 2023. Archived from the original on 20 December 2023. Retrieved 20 December 2023.
- ^ "How Iran's political battle is fought in cyberspace". BBC. 21 December 2023. Archived from the original on 14 February 2010. Retrieved 20 December 2023.
- ^ "What rules apply in cyber-wars". BBC. 21 December 2023.
- ^ "How Iran's Revived Weapons Exports Could Boost Its Proxies". The Washington Institute. Archived from the original on 14 June 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2021.
- ^ "Inside the Russian effort to build 6,000 attack drones with Iran's help". Washington Post. 17 August 2023. Archived from the original on 3 April 2024. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
- ^ Nissenbaum, Dion; Strobel, Warren P. (5 February 2023). "WSJ News Exclusive | Moscow, Tehran Advance Plans for Iranian-Designed Drone Facility in Russia". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on 29 May 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
- ^ "Russia aims to obtain more attack drones from Iran after depleting stockpile, White House says". AP News. 15 May 2023. Archived from the original on 17 December 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran finalises deal buy russian fighter jets". Reuters. 11 January 2024. Archived from the original on 12 December 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran Finalizes Deal to Buy Russian Fighter Jets – Tasnim". Voice of America. 28 November 2023. Archived from the original on 11 January 2024. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
- ^ "China, Russia, Iran hold joint naval drills in Gulf of Oman". AP News. 15 March 2023. Archived from the original on 2 January 2024. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
- ^ "An atomic threat made in America". Chicago Tribune. 28 January 2007. Archived from the original on 5 April 2014. Retrieved 28 December 2023.
- ^ "Iran's Nuclear Program – Council on Foreign Relations". 20 February 2012. Archived from the original on 20 February 2012. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "Iran Could Make Fuel for Nuclear Bomb in Less Than 2 Weeks, Milley Says". Voice of America. 23 March 2023. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "Iran Deal". The White House. Archived from the original on 27 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ Fox, Kara (8 May 2018). "European leaders 'disappointed' in Trump's withdrawal from Iran deal". CNN. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ Sparks, Grace (8 May 2018). "Majority say US should not withdraw from Iran nuclear agreement | CNN Politics". CNN. Archived from the original on 8 May 2018. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ Schumann, Anna (11 May 2020). "A worthless withdrawal: Two years since President Trump abandoned the JCPOA". Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ Lynch, Colum (2 May 2024). "Despite U.S. Sanctions, Iran Expands Its Nuclear Stockpile". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 10 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "Iran abandons enrichment limits in further step back from nuclear deal". France 24. 5 January 2020. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "Iran nuclear deal: Government announces enrichment breach". 7 July 2019. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "Iran approaches the nuclear threshold". IISS. Archived from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ Motamedi, Maziar. "Five years after Trump's exit, no return to the Iran nuclear deal". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 7 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ Lynch, Colum (16 May 2024). "Despite U.S. Sanctions, Iran Expands Its Nuclear Stockpile". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 10 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ Murphy, Francois (15 November 2023). "Iran's nuclear enrichment advances as it stonewalls UN, IAEA reports show". Reuters. Archived from the original on 6 December 2023. Retrieved 20 December 2023.
- ^ "Iran advances nuclear enrichment while still barring inspectors; IAEA". Aljazeera. 15 November 2023. Archived from the original on 20 December 2023. Retrieved 20 December 2023.
- ^ "Iran Resumes Pace of 60% Uranium Enrichment, IAEA Says". Voice of America. 26 December 2023. Archived from the original on 11 January 2024. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
- ^ "Watchdog Report: Iran Has Further Increased Its Total Stockpile of Uranium". Voice of America. 26 February 2024. Archived from the original on 8 May 2024. Retrieved 8 May 2024.
- ^ "Does Iran already have nuclear weapons?". The Washington Times. 19 April 2024. Archived from the original on 15 March 2024. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
- ^ Pletka, Danielle (18 April 2024). "Whatever Happened to Biden's Iran Policy?". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
- ^ Cohen, Avner (21 March 2024). "Has Iran become a de facto nuclear state?". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 4 June 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "Are We Witnessing The Dawn Of A New Persian Empire?". en.radiofarda.com. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
- ^ Qatar, Middle East, politics, GCC, Iran, Syria, Iraq, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Nuclear deal, Yemen, Trump, MENA, Turkey, Gulf Crisis. "Future Center – Can Iran turn itself into a "neo-Persian Empire"?". Futureuae. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Handberg, Hjalte (1 January 2019). "Understanding Iranian Proxy Warfare: A Historical Analysis of the Relational Development of the Islamic Republic of Iran and Iraqi Insurgencies" (PDF). Diva Portal.
- ^ "China, Russia and Iran Are Reviving the Age of Empires". Bloomberg.com. 14 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ Aaberg, John (15 September 2019). "Understanding Iranian Proxy Warfare: A Historical Analysis of the Relational Development of the Islamic Republic of Iran and Iraqi Insurgencies" (PDF). Diva Portal. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
- ^ "The Rise of the Iranian Empire". The Tower. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
- ^ Dagres, Holly (28 January 2019). "Persia is back, but in a different form". Atlantic Council. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
- ^ "The Challenge of Iran | The Iran Primer". iranprimer.usip.org. 1 August 2015. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran, a Geopolitical Player in the Middle East". www.iemed.org. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ Team, G. P. F. (16 February 2018). "Iranian Expansion Spreads Beyond the Middle East". Geopolitical Futures. Archived from the original on 31 January 2024. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
- ^ "New report reveals extent of Iran's growing Middle East influence". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 31 January 2024. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
- ^ Kane, J. Robert (2018). "A Life Cycle Analysis of Hezbollah: Where the Group Came from and Where It Is Going". American Intelligence Journal. 35 (2): 67–73. ISSN 0883-072X. JSTOR 26566567. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "Hezbollah's Record on War & Politics | Wilson Center". wilsoncenter.org. Archived from the original on 31 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "Profile: Iran's Revolutionary Guards". 8 April 2019. Archived from the original on 16 March 2022. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "Hezbollah's Regional Activities in Support of Iran's Proxy Networks". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ DeVore, Marc R. (2012). "Exploring the Iran-Hezbollah Relationship: A Case Study of how State Sponsorship affects Terrorist Group Decision-Making". Perspectives on Terrorism. 6 (4/5): 85–107. ISSN 2334-3745. JSTOR 26296878. Archived from the original on 25 December 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ Kliot, N. (1987). "The Collapse of the Lebanese State". Middle Eastern Studies. 23 (1): 54–74. doi:10.1080/00263208708700688. ISSN 0026-3206. JSTOR 4283154.
- ^ "War, insurgency, IS and instability: Iraq since the 2003 US invasion". The Guardian. 19 March 2023. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "The Saudi-led War in Yemen: Frequently Asked Questions | Friends Committee On National Legislation". www.fcnl.org. 17 October 2023. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ Ali, Mohanad Hage (30 January 2024). "Hezbollahʼs Intervention in the Syrian Conflict". Power Points Defining the Syria-Hezbollah Relationship: 8–13. JSTOR resrep20960.6.
- ^ Akbar, Ali (8 August 2023). "Iran's soft power in the Middle East via the promotion of the Persian language". Contemporary Politics. 29 (4): 424–445. doi:10.1080/13569775.2023.2169305. ISSN 1356-9775.
- ^ "Tehran's Corridor to the Mediterranean Sea – EUROPolitika" (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran Threatens Mediterranean Closure Over Gaza Without Saying How". Voice of America. 23 December 2023. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran Thrives In The Levant On Weakened States Threatened By Sunni Radicalism". Hoover Institution. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ How to Contain Iranian Influence in the Levant (Report). Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "Institute for the Study of War". Institute for the Study of War. Archived from the original on 25 March 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
- ^ Feyli, Luca Nevola, Miran (23 May 2023). "The Muqawama and Its Enemies: Shifting Patterns in Iran-Backed Shiite Militia Activity in Iraq". ACLED. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Knights, Crispin Smith, Michael (20 March 2023). "Remaking Iraq: How Iranian-Backed Militias Captured the Country". Just Security. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "How Much Influence Does Iran Have in Iraq?". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 30 March 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran is still the main foreign power in Iraq". ISPI. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ Motamedi, Maziar. "Where does Iran stand on neighbouring Iraq's political turmoil?". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "افزایش صادرات ایران به عراق تا 9 میلیارد دلار/ در تجارت با منطقه جایگاه مناسبی نداریم". KhabarFarsi.com (in Persian). Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran-Iraq $20b trade target not out of reach: CBI governor". Tehran Times. 23 July 2019. Archived from the original on 28 October 2021. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran, Iraq targeting annual trade vol. $20b". Mehr News Agency. 16 November 2020. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "The Houthis, Iran, and tensions in the Red Sea". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "How Iran Helped Houthis Expand Their Reach". War on the Rocks. 23 August 2021. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ Lester, Stephanie (19 December 2019). "Media Guide: Iran and the Yemeni Civil War". American Iranian Council. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "5 Things to Know About the Houthis, Their Attacks on Israel and the U.S., and Their Treatment of Yemen's Jews | AJC". www.ajc.org. 29 December 2023. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ Ignatius, David (16 January 2024). "Opinion | The Houthis sink an arrow into the West's Achilles' heel". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 17 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "Yemen's Houthi rebels seize cargo ship in Red Sea". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 24 March 2024. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
- ^ "A ship earlier hit by Yemen's Houthi rebels sinks in the Red Sea, the first vessel lost in conflict". AP News. 2 March 2024. Archived from the original on 23 March 2024. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
- ^ Clinch, Matt (25 March 2022). "Yemen's Houthis claim attack on Aramco facility after reports of a huge fire in Saudi city of Jeddah". CNBC. Archived from the original on 26 March 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
- ^ "Mission Accomplished? What's Next for Iran's Afghan Fighters in Syria". War on the Rocks. 13 February 2018. Archived from the original on 14 May 2019. Retrieved 25 March 2024.
- ^ "Meet the Zainebiyoun Brigade: An Iranian Backed Pakistani Shia Militia Fighting in Syria – The OSINT Blog". 2 May 2016. Archived from the original on 2 May 2016. Retrieved 25 March 2024.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ^ "Iran's Tricky Balancing Act in Afghanistan". War on the Rocks. 28 July 2021. Archived from the original on 22 March 2022. Retrieved 25 March 2024.
- ^ Terrill, W. Andrew (2015). "Iran's Strategy for Saving Asad". Middle East Journal. 69 (2): 222–236. doi:10.3751/69.2.1. ISSN 0026-3141. JSTOR 43698235. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran's Evolving Policy on Syria | The Iran Primer". iranprimer.usip.org. 30 July 2012. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ Samii, Abbas William (2008). "A Stable Structure on Shifting Sands: Assessing the Hizbullah-Iran-Syria Relationship". Middle East Journal. 62 (1): 32–53. doi:10.3751/62.1.12. ISSN 0026-3141. JSTOR 25482471. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "Institute for the Study of War". Institute for the Study of War. Archived from the original on 25 March 2022. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "Why is Iran Involved in Syria: A Look at Multifaceted Reasons". 30 December 2023. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran Update, September 20, 2023". Critical Threats. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "After 7 years of war, Assad has won in Syria. What's next for Washington?". Brookings. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "Syria's Stalemate Has Only Benefitted Assad and His Backers". United States Institute of Peace. Archived from the original on 18 March 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran and Hamas beyond the borders of the Middle East". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ Skare, Erik (18 December 2023). "Iran, Hamas, and Islamic Jihad: A marriage of convenience". ECFR. Archived from the original on 16 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "The Hamas-Iran Relationship | The Washington Institute". www.washingtoninstitute.org. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ "Hamas And Israel: Iran's Role | Wilson Center". www.wilsoncenter.org. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
- ^ Lillis, Jake Tapper, Katie Bo (14 November 2023). "Found document suggests Iran sought to help Hamas make its own weapons ahead of attack, sources say | CNN Politics". CNN. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "US intelligence officials estimate Tehran does not have full control of its proxy groups". Politico. 2 January 2024. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
- ^ VICE (15 April 2020). VICE Guide to Iran with Suroosh Alvi. Retrieved 17 May 2024 – via YouTube.
- ^ "Iran". freedomhouse.org. 30 January 2019. Archived from the original on 30 April 2019. Retrieved 30 April 2019.
- ^ Avery, Daniel (4 April 2019). "71 Countries Where Homosexuality is Illegal". Newsweek. Archived from the original on 11 December 2019. Retrieved 17 August 2019.
- ^ "Iran defends execution of gay people". Deutsche Welle. 12 June 2019. Archived from the original on 9 January 2020. Retrieved 17 August 2019.
- ^ "Iran halts execution of three protesters after online campaign". BBC. Archived from the original on 7 September 2020. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
- ^ "Iran: UN expert says ethnic, religious minorities face discrimination". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. New York. 22 October 2019. Archived from the original on 12 December 2023. Retrieved 12 December 2023.
- ^ "Rights experts urge Iran to end 'systematic persecution' of religious minorities". UN News. 22 August 2022. Archived from the original on 12 December 2023. Retrieved 12 December 2023.
- ^ "UN Rights Experts Call On Iran To Stop Persecution Of Baha'is, Other Religious Minorities". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Archived from the original on 12 December 2023. Retrieved 12 December 2023.
- ^ "Iran". Reporters Without Borders. Archived from the original on 19 January 2018. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
- ^ "The World Press Freedom Index". Reporters Without Borders. 19 April 2016. Archived from the original on 19 April 2019. Retrieved 17 May 2019.
- ^ "Freedom in the World 2019, Iran". Freedom House. 30 January 2019. Archived from the original on 30 April 2019. Retrieved 17 May 2019.
- ^ Taylor, Chloe (21 November 2019). "Iran's internet blackout enters fifth day as government claims victory over protesters". CNBC. Archived from the original on 22 November 2019. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
- ^ Mihalcik, Carrie. "Iran's internet has been shut down for days amid protests". CNET. Archived from the original on 26 November 2019. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
- ^ "Iran shuts down country's internet in the wake of fuel protests". TechCrunch. 17 November 2019. Archived from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
- ^ MacLellan, Stephanie (9 January 2018). "What You Need to Know about Internet Censorship in Iran". Centre for International Governance Innovation. Archived from the original on 24 November 2020. Retrieved 11 November 2020.
- ^ Landry, Carole (25 June 2009). "G8 calls on Iran to halt election violence". Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ Tait, Robert; Black, Ian; Tran, Mark (17 June 2009). "Iran protests: Fifth day of unrest as regime cracks down on critics". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
- ^ "Iran clerics defy election ruling". BBC News. 5 July 2009. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ "Is this government legitimate?". BBC. 7 September 2009. Archived from the original on 9 April 2015. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ Erdbrink, Thomas (4 August 2018). "Protests Pop Up Across Iran, Fueled by Daily Dissatisfaction". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 23 October 2023. Retrieved 5 August 2022.
- ^ "Iran arrested 7,000 in crackdown on dissent during 2018 – Amnesty". BBC News. 24 January 2019. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 5 August 2022.
- ^ "In Pictures: Iranians protest against the increase in fuel prices". Al-Jazeera. 17 November 2019. Archived from the original on 19 November 2019. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
- ^ Shutdown, Iran Internet. "A web of impunity: The killings Iran's internet shutdown hid — Amnesty International". Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 15 January 2021.
- ^ "Special Report: Iran's leader ordered crackdown on unrest – 'Do whatever it takes to end it'". Reuters. Archived from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved 23 December 2019.
- ^ "Ukrainian airplane with 180 aboard crashes in Iran: Fars". Reuters. 8 January 2020. Archived from the original on 8 January 2020. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
- ^ "Demands for justice after Iran's plane admission". BBC. 11 January 2020. Archived from the original on 12 January 2020. Retrieved 11 January 2020.
- ^ "Who are Iran's 'morality police'? – DW – 12/04/2022". dw.com. Archived from the original on 23 October 2023. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Protests flare across Iran in violent unrest over woman's death". Reuters. 20 September 2022. Archived from the original on 27 September 2022. Retrieved 23 September 2022.
- ^ Leonhardt, David (26 September 2022). "Iran's Ferocious Dissent". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 27 September 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
- ^ Strzy؟yٌska, Weronika (16 September 2022). "Iranian woman dies 'after being beaten by morality police' over hijab law". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
- ^ "Iran economy". Traveldocs.com. Archived from the original on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ Iran Investment Monthly Archived 31 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Turquoise Partners (April 2012). Retrieved 24 July 2012.
- ^ "Overview". World Bank. Archived from the original on 4 July 2020. Retrieved 24 December 2023.
- ^ "Tehran (Iran) : People – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 23 November 2012. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
- ^ Cordesman, Anthony H. (23 September 2008). "The US, Israel, the Arab States and a Nuclear Iran. Part One: Iranian Nuclear Programs" (PDF). Center for Strategic and International Studies. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 August 2010. Retrieved 25 September 2010.
- ^ "Iran's banned trade unions: Aya-toiling". The Economist. 20 April 2013. Archived from the original on 23 June 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2013.
- ^ "Iran Unemployment Rate". Archived from the original on 8 November 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
- ^ "Monthly Report". 14 June 2012. Archived from the original on 14 June 2012. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
- ^ "Senior Official Says Iran Paying $100 Billion In Energy Subsidies". Iran International. 9 May 2022. Archived from the original on 4 June 2024. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
- ^ "Ahmadinejad's Achilles Heel: The Iranian Economy". Payvand.com. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ "Iran – Country Brief". Go.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 10 February 2011. Retrieved 30 January 2010.
- ^ "List of Iranian Nanotechnology companies". Archived from the original on 14 November 2006. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
- ^ "UK Trade & Investment". 13 February 2006. Archived from the original on 13 February 2006. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
- ^ "FAOSTAT". www.fao.org. Archived from the original on 12 November 2016. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
- ^ "Iran and sanctions: When will it ever end?". The Economist. 18 August 2012. Archived from the original on 30 May 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2013.
- ^ "The consequences of non-participation in the Paris Agreement". European Economic Review. Retrieved 29 October 2024 – via sciencedirect.com.
- ^ "Kish Island, Hormozgan province – ITTO". itto.org. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran's tourist arrivals grow to over 8 Million: Minister". Irna. 18 August 2019. Archived from the original on 7 December 2023. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
- ^ "Iran Third Fastest Growing Tourism Destination In 2019: UNWTO". MCTH. 7 December 2023. Archived from the original on 7 December 2023. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
- ^ "Iran's tourism industry up by 21% in 2023". Mehr News Agency. 29 April 2024. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "بازدید ۶ میلیون گردشگر خارجی از ایران در یک سال/ صعود ۶ پلهای ایران در ردهبندی گردشگری". IRNA. 28 May 2024. Archived from the original on 28 May 2024. Retrieved 28 May 2024.
- ^ Kryeziu, Alza (17 April 2024). "Half of the World Now Granted Visa-Free Access to Iran". VisaGuide.News. Archived from the original on 18 April 2024. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
- ^ "Revival rhythm: Iran's tourism blooms by 21%". Tehran Times. 29 April 2024. Archived from the original on 6 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ Sightseeing and excursions in Iran Archived 18 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Tehran Times, 28 September 2010. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
- ^ a b "Medical Tourism in Iran". Medical Tourism. 15 December 2023. Archived from the original on 15 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2023.
- ^ "Iran Welcomes Millions of Medical Tourists Every Year". Financial Tribune. 18 July 2023. Archived from the original on 15 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2023.
- ^ "Foreign arrivals in Iran reach 4.4 million in 8 months, up by 48.5% y/y". Tehran Times. 12 December 2023. Archived from the original on 16 December 2023. Retrieved 18 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran's tourism among the top 20 countries". Iran Daily. 15 December 2023. Archived from the original on 15 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2023.
- ^ a b Ayse, Valentine; Nash, Jason John; Leland, Rice (2013). The Business Year 2013: Iran. London: The Business Year. p. 166. ISBN 978-1-908180-11-7. Archived from the original on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2014.
- ^ Brian Boniface, MA; Chris Cooper; Robyn Cooper (2012). Worldwide Destinations: The geography of travel and tourism. Routledge. p. 362. ISBN 978-1-136-00113-0.
- ^ "Iran sets up funds for tourism development". Tehran Times. 10 January 2023. Archived from the original on 15 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2023.
- ^ "Agriculture in Iran". Archived from the original on 4 August 2019. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
- ^ "Iran Food security". 7 August 2014. Archived from the original on 7 May 2016. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
- ^ Seyf, Ahmad (1984). "Technical Changes in Iranian Agriculture, 1800–1906". Middle Eastern Studies. 20 (4): 142–154. doi:10.1080/00263208408700603. ISSN 0026-3206. JSTOR 4283034. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
- ^ "About this Collection | Country Studies | Digital Collections | Library of Congress". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 25 June 2015. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
- ^ "Crunch time for Caspian caviar". BBC News. 19 June 2001. Archived from the original on 27 March 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
- ^ "Iransaga – Iran The Country, The Land". Art-arena.com. Archived from the original on 26 October 2010. Retrieved 21 January 2012.
- ^ "Iran Khodro Rail Industries Factory Inaugurated". 13 May 2011. Archived from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
- ^ "Iran takes world's 16th place in car manufacturing: OICA". Mehr News Agency. 30 March 2024. Archived from the original on 31 March 2024. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
- ^ "Iran takes world's 16th place in car manufacturing: OICA". nournews. Retrieved 31 March 2024.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Iran advances 41 places in industrial production". Tehran Times. 27 February 2010. Archived from the original on 10 January 2024. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran doing industrial projects in 27 countries". Mehr News Agency. 1 April 2011. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
- ^ "سازمان توسعه تجارت ایران". 28 January 2011. Archived from the original on 28 January 2011. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
- ^ "The US, Israel, the Arab States and a Nuclear Iran" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 August 2010. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
- ^ "SCT – Shopping Centers Today Online". 3 April 2012. Archived from the original on 3 April 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran's foodstuff exports near $1b". Tehran Times. 23 February 2010. Archived from the original on 10 January 2024. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran Daily – Domestic Economy – 06/11/09". 14 June 2009. Archived from the original on 14 June 2009. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
- ^ "MINING.COM". MINING.COM. Archived from the original on 10 January 2024. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
- ^ "Atieh Bahar – Resources – Iran's Automotive Industry Overview". 7 July 2011. Archived from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
- ^ "Official: Iran now among world's 6 turbine manufacturers – Tehran Times". 12 October 2012. Archived from the original on 12 October 2012. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
- ^ "The Business Year – Moving Around". Archived from the original on 14 March 2014. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
- ^ "Iran Daily | Domestic Economy". iran-daily.com. Archived from the original on 18 June 2009.
- ^ Rohde, Michael. "World Metro Database - metrobits.org". mic-ro.com. Archived from the original on 23 September 2010. Retrieved 30 December 2023.
- ^ "Tehran Metro". Railway Technology. Archived from the original on 22 December 2010. Retrieved 30 December 2023.
- ^ "March 18, 2023, Tehran, Tehran, Iran: A view of the Tehran metro station during the opening ceremony of 5 new stations of the Tehran Metro in the presence of Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi. The Tehran Metro is a rapid transit system serving Tehran, the capital of Iran. It is the most extensive metro system in the Middle East. The system is owned and operated by Tehran Urban and Suburban Railway. It consists of six operational metro lines (and an additional commuter rail line), with construction underway on three lines, including the west extension of line 4, line 6 and the north and east exte Stock Photo". alamy.com. Archived from the original on 30 December 2023. Retrieved 30 December 2023.
- ^ "Tehran Urban & Suburban Railway Co (TUSRC)". Railway Gazette International. Archived from the original on 4 June 2024. Retrieved 30 December 2023.
- ^ "Islamic Republic Of Iran Railroads :: راه آهن جمهوري اسلامي ايران". Rai.ir. Archived from the original on 15 August 2012. Retrieved 9 February 2012.
- ^ "Iran Daily | Domestic Economy". iran-daily.com. Archived from the original on 3 June 2009.
- ^ "Gas compression at South Pars". Shana. 18 May 2023. Retrieved 17 March 2024.
- ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20140401102351/http://www.uidergisi.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Global-Energy-Geopolitics-and-Iran.pdf [bare URL PDF]
- ^ "The Rising might of the Middle East super power – Council on Foreign Relations". 3 March 2016. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
- ^ "International - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". www.eia.gov. Archived from the original on 10 May 2024. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
- ^ https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/irans-oil-exports-reached-35-billion-last-12-months-ilna-2024-04-02/ [bare URL]
- ^ "Iran's Foreign Trade Regime Report" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 March 2013. Retrieved 11 August 2010.
- ^ "Iran's oil and gas reserves estimated at 1.2 trillion barrels: NIOC chief | Hellenic Shipping News Worldwide". www.hellenicshippingnews.com. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
- ^ "Iran ranks 2nd, 3rd in gas, oil reserves in world". IRNA. 2 June 2024. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
- ^ "BP Cuts Russia, Turkmenistan Natural Gas Reserves Estimates". The Wall Street Journal.com. 12 June 2013. Archived from the original on 19 June 2013. Retrieved 24 June 2013.
- ^ Altaher, Nada; Robinson, Matthew (10 November 2019). "Iran has discovered an oil field with an estimated 53 billion barrels of crude, Rouhani says | CNN Business". CNN. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
- ^ "Iran discovers new oil field with over 50 billion barrels". AP News. 10 November 2019. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
- ^ "Iran says new oilfield found with 53 billion barrels". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
- ^ "Iran oil: New field with 53bn barrels found – Rouhani". 10 November 2019. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
- ^ "Iran discovers giant shale oil reserves in several regions". Mehr News Agency. 2 April 2024. Archived from the original on 10 April 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
- ^ Dooley, Kenny (2 April 2024). "Iran discovers giant shale oil reserves in several regions". www.ogv.energy. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
- ^ Ugal, Nishant (9 October 2023). "Four new oil and gas discoveries unveiled by Iran with potential 2.6 billion barrels of reserves". upstreamonline.com. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
- ^ Iran Daily – Domestic Economy – 04/24/08[permanent dead link]
- ^ SHANA: Share of domestically made equipments on the rise Archived 9 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 26 July 2010.
- ^ "Iran, Besieged by Gasoline Sanctions, Develops GTL to Extract Gasoline from Natural Gas". Oilprice.com. Archived from the original on 7 February 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
- ^ "Iran" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 January 2012. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ Daniel Müller; Professor Harald Müller (2015). WMD Arms Control in the Middle East: Prospects, Obstacles and Options. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 140. ISBN 978-1-4724-3593-4.
- ^ "Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics". Ibb.ut.ac.ir. 2 February 2011. Archived from the original on 22 October 2006. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ "The first successfully cloned animal in Iran". Middle-east-online.com. 30 September 2006. Archived from the original on 28 October 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
- ^ "Iranian Studies Group at MIT" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2008. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ^ "INIC – News – 73% of Tehran's Students Acquainted with Nanotechnology". En.nano.ir. 18 January 2010. Archived from the original on 15 October 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2010.
- ^ "Iran Ranks 15th in Nanotech Articles". Bernama. 9 November 2009. Archived from the original on 10 December 2011. Retrieved 1 August 2010.
- ^ "Iran daily: Iranian Technology From Foreign Perspective". Archived from the original on 15 April 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
- ^ "Project Retired – EECS at UC Berkeley" (PDF). berkeley.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 November 2007.
- ^ Vali Nasr (2007). The Shia Revival: How Conflicts within Islam Will Shape the Future. W.W. Norton. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-393-06640-1.
- ^ Ben Mathis-Lilley (12 August 2014). "A Woman Has Won the Fields Medal, Math's Highest Prize, for the First Time". Slate. Graham Holdings Company. Archived from the original on 14 August 2014. Retrieved 14 August 2014.
- ^ Expert:VSR.Subramaniam (18 October 2006). "Economics: economic, medical uses of alcohol, uses of alcohol". Experts.about.com. Archived from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ "Forecasting Exercise" (PDF). SCImago. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 30 June 2017.
- ^ "No. 3817 | Front page | Page 1". Irandaily. Archived from the original on 12 November 2010. Retrieved 21 October 2011.
- ^ World Intellectual Property Organization (2024). Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship. Geneva. p. 18. doi:10.34667/tind.50062. ISBN 978-92-805-3681-2. Retrieved 22 October 2024.
{{cite book}}:|website=ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Fathi, Nazila; Broad, William J. (3 February 2009). "Iran Launches Satellite in a Challenge for Obama". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
- ^ Brian Harvey; Henk H. F. Smid; Theo Pirard (2011). Emerging Space Powers: The New Space Programs of Asia, the Middle East and South-America. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 293. ISBN 978-1-4419-0874-2.
- ^ "The 6th International Conference on Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning" (PDF). Hvac-conference.ir. 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
- ^ Stephen Clark (2 February 2009). "Iran Launches Omid Satellite Into Orbit". Space.com. Archived from the original on 29 February 2024. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran Launches Soraya Satellite Into Orbit 750 Km Above Earth – Iran Front Page". ifpnews.com. 20 January 2024. Archived from the original on 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran says it launched a satellite despite Western concerns – DW – 01/20/2024". dw.com. Archived from the original on 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran says launches satellite in new aerospace milestone". phys.org. Archived from the original on 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
- ^ Presse, AFP-Agence France. "Iran Says Launches Satellite In New Aerospace Milestone". barrons.com. Archived from the original on 21 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran's Soraya satellite signals received on earth". Mehr News Agency. 21 January 2024. Archived from the original on 22 January 2024. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran successfully launches Soraya satellite using Qa'im 100 carrier". iranpress.com. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran says it launches 3 satellites into space-Xinhua". english.news.cn. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran launches three satellites simultaneously for first time – DW – 01/28/2024". dw.com. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran launches 3 satellites into space that are part of a Western-criticized program as tensions rise". AP News. 28 January 2024. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran simultaneously launches three satellites – state media". The Economic Times. 28 January 2024. ISSN 0013-0389. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran Conducts Second Controversial Satellite Launch In One Week". Iran International. 28 January 2024. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran launches three satellites amid rising tensions with Western powers". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran launches 'domestically developed' imaging satellite from Russia". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
- ^ Online |, E. T. (29 February 2024). "Iran launches Pars 1 satellite from Russia amidst Western concern over Moscow-Tehrain ties". The Economic Times. Archived from the original on 15 March 2024. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
- ^ Motamedi, Maziar. "Russia launches Iranian satellite into space from Kazakhstan base". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
- ^ "Russia launches Soyuz rocket into space carrying Iranian satellite Pars-I". WION. 29 February 2024. Archived from the original on 15 March 2024. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
- ^ "National Security and the Internet in the Persian Gulf: Iran". 3 July 2007. Archived from the original on 3 July 2007. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
- ^ "Internet Speed in Iran is at Regional Bottom". Iran Open Data. 8 March 2024. Retrieved 5 July 2024.
- ^ "درگاه ملی آمار". درگاه ملی آمار ایران. Archived from the original on 25 March 2023. Retrieved 14 February 2023.
- ^ Latest Statistical Center of Iran fertility rate statistics (published February 2023). xlsx Archived 22 May 2023 at the Wayback Machine at page Archived 26 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Roser, Max (19 February 2014). "Fertility Rate". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 21 November 2020. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
- ^ "Children per woman". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 3 July 2020. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
- ^ "Population growth (annual %) – Iran, Islamic Rep. | Data". data.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 11 July 2020. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
- ^ U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2005. Unpublished work tables for estimating Iran's mortality. Washington, D.C.: Population Division, International Programs Center
- ^ Iran News, Payvand.com. "Iran's population growth rate falls to 1.5 percent: UNFP". Archived from the original on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 18 October 2006.
- ^ "World Population Prospects – Population Division – United Nations". esa.un.org. Archived from the original on 19 September 2016. Retrieved 25 August 2018.
- ^ "Refugee population by country or territory of asylum – Iran, Islamic Rep. | Data". data.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 11 July 2020. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
- ^ "Afghanistan-Iran: Iran says it will deport over one million Afghans". Irinnews.org. 4 March 2008. Archived from the original on 2 September 2011. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
- ^ "Iran Social Security System" (PDF). World Bank. 2003. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 30 November 2015.
- ^ Aurelio Mejيa (2013). "Is tax funding of health care more likely to be regressive than systems based on social insurance in low and middle-income countries?". Universidad de Antioquia (78): 229–239. Archived from the original on 16 December 2015. Retrieved 30 November 2015.
- ^ "Iran: Focus on reverse migration". Payvand. Archived from the original on 26 March 2006. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
- ^ "Population distribution – The World Factbook". cia.gov. Archived from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
- ^ J. Harmatta in "History of Civilizations of Central Asia", Chapter 14, The Emergence of Indo-Iranians: The Indo-Iranian Languages, ed. by A. H. Dani & V.N. Masson, 1999, p. 357
- ^ "Country Profile: Iran" (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. May 2008. p. xxvi. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 May 2020. Retrieved 9 June 2014.
- ^ "World Heritage List". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 1 November 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
- ^ "Constitution of Islamic Republic of Iran, Chapter II: The Official Language, Script, Calendar, and Flag of the Country, Article 15". Iran Chamber Society. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 9 June 2023.
- ^ Annika Rabo, Bo Utas. The Role of the State in West Asia Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul, 2005 ISBN 91-86884-13-1
- ^ Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East Archived 2 April 2024 at the Wayback Machine Facts On File, Incorporated ISBN 1-4381-2676-X p. 141
- ^ Oberling, Pierre (7 February 2012). "Georgia viii: Georgian communities in Persia". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 17 May 2013. Retrieved 9 June 2014.
- ^ "Circassian". Official Circassian Association. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 9 June 2014.
- ^ Chardin, Sir John (June 1997). "Persians: Kind, hospitable, tolerant flattering cheats?". The Iranian. Archived from the original on 20 June 1997. Retrieved 9 June 2014. Excerpted from:
- Chardin, Sir John (1988). "Book 2, Chapter XI: Of the Temper, Manners, and Customs of the Persians: A XVII th. Century Viewpoint". Travels in Persia, 1673–1677. New York: Dover Publications. pp. 183–197. ISBN 978-0-486-25636-8. OCLC 798310290. Archived from the original on 11 February 2023. Retrieved 9 June 2014.
- ^ "Iran". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency (United States). Archived from the original on 8 February 2021. Retrieved 24 May 2018.
- ^ "Selected Findings of the 2011 National Population and Housing Census" (PDF). United Nations. Statistical Center of Iran. 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 May 2024. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
- ^ Walter Martin (2003). Kingdom of the Cults, The. Baker Books. p. 421. ISBN 978-0-7642-2821-6. Archived from the original on 11 February 2023. Retrieved 24 June 2013.
Ninety-five percent of Iran's Muslims are Shi'ites.
- ^ Bhabani Sen Gupta (1987). The Persian Gulf and South Asia: prospects and problems of inter-regional cooperation. South Asian Publishers. p. 158. ISBN 978-81-7003-077-5.
Shias constitute seventy-five percent of the population of the Gulf. Of this, ninety-five percent of Iranians and sixty of Iraqis are Shias.
- ^ "Iran". Archived from the original on 25 December 2023. Retrieved 8 March 2024.
- ^ Smyth, Gareth (29 September 2016). "Removal of the heart: how Islam became a matter of state in Iran". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 13 July 2019. Retrieved 23 May 2024.
- ^ "The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency". www.cia.gov. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
- ^ "WVS Database". Archived from the original on 3 July 2021. Retrieved 23 January 2022.
- ^ Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa (Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2004) p. 82
- ^ Hamzeh'ee (1990), p. 39.
- ^ "In pictures: Inside Iran's secretive Yarsan faith". 13 November 2019. Archived from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 24 March 2024.
- ^ Monazzami, Ardeshir (20 February 2022). "Rereading the Religiosity of Yarsan". Religious Research. 9 (18): 143–167. doi:10.22034/jrr.2021.261350.1805. ISSN 2345-3230. Archived from the original on 24 March 2024. Retrieved 24 March 2024.
- ^ "'Men and women have equal rights in the Yarsan community'". JINHAGENCY News. Archived from the original on 24 March 2024. Retrieved 24 March 2024.
- ^ International Federation for Human Rights (1 August 2003). "Discrimination against religious minorities in Iran" (PDF). fdih.org. p. 6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 October 2006. Retrieved 3 September 2020.
- ^ Iran Human Rights Documentation Center (2007). "A Faith Denied: The Persecution of the Bahل'يs of Iran" (PDF). Iran Human Rights Documentation Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 June 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2007.
- ^ Kamali, Saeed (27 February 2013). "Bahل'ي student expelled from Iranian university 'on grounds of religion'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 7 May 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
- ^ Colin Brock, Lila Zia Levers. Aspects of Education in the Middle East and Africa Symposium Books Ltd., 7 mei 2007 ISBN 1-873927-21-5 p. 99
- ^ "Jewish Population of the World". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Archived from the original on 13 October 2023. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
- ^ "In Iran, Mideast's largest Jewish population outside Israel finds new acceptance by officials". Fox News. Archived from the original on 14 October 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
- ^ U.S. State Department (26 October 2009). "Iran – International Religious Freedom Report 2009". The Office of Electronic Information, Bureau of Public Affair. Archived from the original on 29 October 2009.
- ^ 2011 General Census Selected Results (PDF), Statistical Center of Iran, 2012, p. 26, ISBN 978-964-365-827-4, archived (PDF) from the original on 24 June 2019, retrieved 27 January 2017
- ^ "Iran Population 2015". World Population Review. 2015. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
- ^ Country Information and Guidance "Christians and Christian converts, Iran" December 2014. p.9
- ^ "Iran to Register Armenian Cathedral in Isfahan as UNESCO World Heritage Site" Archived 25 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Armenian National Committee of America. Retrieved 25 April 2021.
- ^ "Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran". Archived from the original on 17 January 2023. Retrieved 25 April 2021.
- ^ "Iran (Islamic Republic of)". uis.unesco.org. 27 November 2016. Archived from the original on 30 January 2024. Retrieved 29 July 2020.
- ^ Peter Krol. "Study in Iran :: Iran Educational System". arabiancampus.com. Archived from the original on 12 November 2023. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
- ^ "WEP-Iran". Wes.org. Archived from the original on 24 February 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
- ^ سایت, مدیر (28 December 2023). "گفتگو با استادی که مبتکروآغاز کننده روش های جدید جراحی مغز در دانشگاه علوم پزشکی مشهد است". بیمارستان رضوی (in Persian). Retrieved 27 January 2024.
- ^ "Filepool – Detail | Organization for Investment Economic and Technical Assistance of Iran". 10 October 2016. Archived from the original on 10 October 2016. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
- ^ Movassagh, Hooman (24 April 2016). "Human Organ Donations under the "Iranian Model": A Rewarding Scheme for U.S. Regulatory Reform?". Indiana Health Law Review. 13 (1): 82–118. doi:10.18060/3911.0013. ISSN 2374-2593. Archived from the original on 1 January 2024. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
- ^ kental_tour (24 January 2023). "Iran health care ranking". Kental Travel. Archived from the original on 1 January 2024. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
- ^ "Payvand". Payvand. 1 January 2024. Archived from the original on 29 November 2011. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran Health Insurance in Brief". 17 August 2016. Archived from the original on 17 August 2016. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
- ^ "Kamāl-al-Molk, Moḥammad Ḡaffāri". Encyclopوdia Iranica. Vol. XV. pp. 417–433. Retrieved 13 July 2017.
- ^ Komaroff, Authors: Suzan Yalman, Linda. "The Art of the Safavids before 1600 | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History". The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Retrieved 6 July 2024.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Sāsānian dynasty". Encyclopوdia Britannica. 18 July 2017. Archived from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
Under the Sāsānians Iranian art experienced a general renaissance.
- ^ "Iran – A country study". Parstimes.com. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ "History of Islamic Science 5". Levity.com. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ Afary, Janet (2006). "Iran". Encyclopوdia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2 November 2007. Retrieved 29 October 2007.
- ^ "Art in Iran" [xii. Iranian Pre-Islamic Elements in Islamic Art]. Encyclopوdia Iranica. Vol. II. pp. 549–646. Archived from the original on 23 July 2017. Retrieved 15 July 2017.
- ^ Canby, Sheila R. (2002). The Golden Age of Persian Art: 1501–1722. British Museum Press. ISBN 978-0-7141-2404-9.
- ^ Gumpert, Lynn; Balaghi, Shiva (2002). Picturing Iran [Art, Society and Revolution]. I.B. Tauris. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-86064-883-0.
- ^ "Art in Iran" [xi. Post-Qajar (Painting)]. Encyclopوdia Iranica. Vol. II. pp. 640–646. Archived from the original on 28 July 2017. Retrieved 15 July 2017.
- ^ "Art in America: Modernity and revolution: a recent show of Iranian art focused on the turbulent time from 1960 to 1980, juxtaposing formally inventive works of art with politically charged photographs and posters – Art & Politics – Between Word and Image: Modern Iranian Visual Culture". looksmart. 25 November 2004. Archived from the original on 25 November 2004.
- ^ Pope, Arthur Upham (1965). Persian Architecture. New York: George Braziller. p. 266.
- ^ Ardalan, Nader; Bakhtiar, Laleh. (2000). The Sense of Unity: The Sufi Tradition in Persian Architecture. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-1-871031-78-2.
- ^ "Virtual Conference". American.edu. Archived from the original on 24 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ "Iran secures 5th place worldwide for UNESCO-listed intangible treasures". Tehran Times. 8 December 2023. Archived from the original on 14 December 2023. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
- ^ asadian (6 December 2023). "Iran Reached 5th in UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage list". International Shia News Agency. Archived from the original on 12 January 2024. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
- ^ K K Goswami (2009). Advances in Carpet Manufacture. Elsevier. p. 148. ISBN 978-1-84569-585-9.
- ^ Khalaj, Mehrnosh (10 February 2010). "Iran's oldest craft left behind". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2013.
- ^ "UNESCO – Traditional skills of carpet weaving in Fars". ich.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 8 December 2020. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
- ^ "UNESCO – Traditional skills of carpet weaving in Kashan". ich.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 8 December 2020. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran's carpet washing ritual registered on UNESCO representative list". Mehr News Agency. 8 December 2012. Archived from the original on 1 January 2024. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
- ^ Team, SURFIRAN Editorial (6 February 2016). "Persian Carpets Return to the US Market". SURFIRAN Mag. Retrieved 6 July 2024.
- ^ Malandra, W.W. (1973). "A Glossary of Terms for Weapons and Armor in Old Iranian". Indo-Iranian Journal. 15 (4). Philadelphia: Brill: 264–289. doi:10.1163/000000073790079071. JSTOR 24651454. S2CID 162194727.
- ^ David Levinson; Karen Christensen (2002). Encyclopedia of Modern Asia: Iaido to Malay. Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-684-80617-4.
- ^ François de Blois (April 2004). Persian Literature: A Bio-bibliographical Survey. Vol. 5. Routledge. p. 363. ISBN 978-0-947593-47-6. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
Nizami Ganja'i, whose personal name was Ilyas, is the most celebrated native poet of the Persians after Firdausi.
- ^ Arthur John Arberry, The Legacy of Persia, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953, ISBN 0-19-821905-9, p. 200.
- ^ Von David Levinson; Karen Christensen, Encyclopedia of Modern Asia, Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002, vol. 4, p. 480
- ^ Frye, R.N., "Darī", The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Brill Publications, CD version.
- ^ Carr, Brian; Mahalingam, Indira (2009). "The Origins of Zoroastrian Philosophy" in "Persian Philosophy". In Boyce, Mary (ed.). Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy. Routledge.
- ^ Ayatollahy, Hamidreza (2006). "Philosophy in Contemporary Iran". Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia. 62 (2/4): 811–816. JSTOR 40419494.
- ^ Boyle, John Andrew. "Ferdowsī". Encyclopوdia Britannica. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 18 July 2017.
- ^ "UNESCO – Naqqāli, Iranian dramatic story-telling". ich.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 22 February 2024. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
- ^ "Persian Poetry and Its Evolution in Pre-Islamic Royal Courts". old.saednews.com (in Persian). 20 January 2021. Archived from the original on 31 January 2024. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
- ^ "MYTHOLOGIES OF PERSIA (IRAN)". Indigenous Peoples Literature. 15 February 2023. Archived from the original on 31 January 2024. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
- ^ Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Archived from the original on 10 April 2010. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
- ^ Khandwala, Anoushka (30 March 2021). "From the Grounds Up: Coffeeshops and the History of Iranian Art". ELEPHANT. Archived from the original on 31 January 2024. Retrieved 31 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran Cultural Heritage, Handcraft and Tourism Organization". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 14 January 2024. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran Cultural Heritage, Handcraft and Tourism Organization". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
- ^ "National Museum of Iran". letsgoiran.com. Archived from the original on 22 December 2023. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
- ^ "National Museum of Iran – Official Site For National Museum Of Iran" (in Persian). Archived from the original on 2 February 2024. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
- ^ "National Museum of Iran". UNESCO. 7 January 2024. Archived from the original on 6 January 2024. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
- ^ "25 million people visited museums last year". IRNA. 7 January 2024. Archived from the original on 6 January 2024. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
- ^ "25 million visited Iran's heritage museums in calendar year". Tehran Times. 21 May 2019. Archived from the original on 29 February 2024. Retrieved 6 January 2024.
- ^ Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Music History" [i. Third Millennium B.C.E.]. Encyclopوdia Iranica. Archived from the original on 11 May 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2015.
- ^ "GŌSĀN". Encyclopوdia Iranica. Vol. Xi. pp. 167–170. Archived from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 15 July 2017.
- ^ Farrokh, Dr Kaveh. "Parthian and Central Asian Martial Music". Dr. Kaveh Farrokh. Archived from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 26 May 2024.
- ^ (Lawergren 2009) iv. First millennium C.E. (1) Sasanian music, 224–651.
- ^ "BBCPersian.com". BBC. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
- ^ "Iran Chamber Society: Music of Iran: Pop Music in Iran". iranchamber.com. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
- ^ 'اسکورپیو' در آپارات. BBC Persian. Archived from the original on 13 March 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2015.
- ^ "Rebels of rap reign in Iran". SFGate. 16 April 2008. Archived from the original on 22 October 2015. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
- ^ Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Archived from the original on 10 April 2010. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
- ^ "A Brief Introduction to Iranian Dance". Laurel Victoria Gray. 12 January 2024. Archived from the original on 18 November 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
- ^ a b پوشاک در ایران باستان، فریدون پوربهمن/ت: هاجر ضیاء سیکارودی، امیرکبیر. 2007. pp. 24, 25, 57.
- ^ "کهنترین انیمیشن جهان کجاست؟". ایسنا (in Persian). 19 March 2017. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
- ^ "Oldest Animation Discovered in Iran". Animation Magazine. 12 March 2008. Archived from the original on 20 June 2010. Retrieved 4 August 2014.
- ^ Honour, Hugh and John Fleming, The Visual Arts: A History. New Jersey, Prentice Hall Inc., 1992. Page: 96.
- ^ "Massoud Mehrabi – Articles". massoudmehrabi.com. Archived from the original on 23 June 2018. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
- ^ "Tehran International Animation Festival (1st Festival 1999 )". tehran-animafest.ir. Archived from the original on 28 September 2017. Retrieved 17 August 2016.
- ^ "Tehran International Animation Festival (TIAF)". animation-festivals.com. Archived from the original on 15 October 2015. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
- ^ Shahab Esfandiary (2012). Iranian Cinema and Globalization: National, Transnational, and Islamic Dimensions. Intellect Books. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-84150-470-4.
- ^ Corliss, Richard (18 April 2012). "Asghar Farhadi - The World's 100 Most Influential People: 2012 - TIME". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 24 May 2024.
- ^ Hamid Dabashi (2007). Masters & Masterpieces of Iranian Cinema. Mage Publishers. p. intro. ISBN 978-0-934211-85-7.
- ^ Peter Decherney; Blake Atwood (2014). Iranian Cinema in a Global Context: Policy, Politics, and Form. Routledge. p. 193. ISBN 978-1-317-67520-4.
- ^ "Iran's strong presence in 2006 Berlin International Film Festival". BBC. Archived from the original on 12 April 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2014.
- ^ "BBC NEWS – Entertainment – Iran films return to Berlin festival". BBC. Archived from the original on 15 October 2015. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
- ^ Coates, Tyler (11 December 2021). "Hollywood Flashback: Asghar Farhadi's 'A Separation' Won Iran's First Oscar in 2012". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on 9 January 2024. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
- ^ Shoard, Catherine (27 February 2017). "The Salesman wins best foreign language Oscar". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 1 March 2017. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
- ^ "The Salesman". Golden Globes. Archived from the original on 9 January 2024. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
- ^ "'The Last Fiction' qualified for Oscar". ifilm-آیفیلم. Archived from the original on 9 January 2024. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
- ^ "Iran to contend for 2020 Best Picture Oscar with 'The Last Fiction'". Mehr News Agency. 21 December 2019. Archived from the original on 9 January 2024. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
- ^ "Oscars 2020: 'Last Fiction' First Iranian Film To Run For Best Animated Feature – Iran Front Page". ifpnews.com. 20 October 2019. Archived from the original on 9 January 2024. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
- ^ mhfard (1 October 2019). "'The Last Fiction' is First Iranian Animated Feature to Qualify for Oscars". Hoorakhsh Studios. Archived from the original on 9 January 2024. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
- ^ "DRAMA". Encyclopوdia Iranica. Vol. VII. pp. 529–535. Archived from the original on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
- ^ "Iran's Minister of Culture and Islamic Guidance calls for expansion of ties with UNESCO". UNESCO. 15 December 2014. Archived from the original on 8 February 2017. Retrieved 2 December 2018.
- ^ "Top Sites in Iran". Alexa Internet. Archived from the original on 10 December 2010. Retrieved 2 December 2018.
- ^ Kamali Dehghan, Saeed (13 May 2015). "From Digikala to Hamijoo: the Iranian startup revolution, phase two". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
- ^ Williams, Stuart. (October 2008). "DRINKING". Iran – Culture Smart!: The Essential Guide to Customs & Culture. Kuperard. ISBN 978-1-85733-598-9.
Iranians are obsessive tea drinkers
- ^ Maslin, Jamie. (2009). Iranian Rappers and Persian Porn: A Hitchhiker's Adventures in the New Iran. Skyhorse Publishing Inc. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-60239-791-0.
Iran is a nation of obsessive tea drinkers
- ^ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations—Production FAOSTAT Archived 15 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 30 April 2010.
- ^ Foodspotting (18 March 2014). "24 / Dessert: Faloodeh". The Foodspotting Field Guide. Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-1-4521-3008-8.
- ^ Henninger, Danya (7 February 2017). "Franklin Fountain has an ImPeach sundae with 'nuts from the cabinet'". BillyPenn.com. Archived from the original on 19 August 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
- ^ Duguid, Naomi (6 September 2016). Taste of Persia: A Cook's Travels Through Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iran, and Kurdistan. Artisan. p. 353. ISBN 978-1-57965-727-7.
... havij bastani, a kind of ice cream float, made with Persian ice cream and carrot juice
- ^ "Sturgeon Stocks Slump". Iran-daily.com. Archived from the original on 16 July 2005. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
- ^ "The History of Polo". Polomuseum.com. Archived from the original on 17 July 2013. Retrieved 27 March 2015.
- ^ Ben Johnson. "The origins and history of Polo". Historic-uk.com. Archived from the original on 28 February 2015. Retrieved 27 March 2015.
- ^ "Iran Chamber Society: Sport in Iran: History of Chogân (Polo)". www.iranchamber.com. Archived from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 26 May 2024.
- ^ Singh, Jaisal (2007). Polo in India. London: New Holland. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-84537-913-1.
- ^ "Zurkhaneh Traditional Sports". traditionalsportsgames.org. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
- ^ "History of Asian Games". www.insidethegames.biz. Archived from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
- ^ "Iranian Great Power Ambitions and China's Return to the Olympic Movement, 1973–74 | Wilson Center". www.wilsoncenter.org. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
- ^ "Teenagers won titles in the Tehran 1974 Asian Games where South Korea and Iran were the bests". ASBCNEWS. Archived from the original on 28 January 2024. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
- ^ "Rock Climbing Routes, Gear, Photos, Videos & Articles". Rockclimbing.com. 27 October 2009. Archived from the original on 15 June 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ "Iran Mountain Zone (IMZ)". Mountainzone.ir. 11 June 1966. Archived from the original on 9 December 2002. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ "Mountaineering in Iran". Abc-of-mountaineering.com. Archived from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
- ^ "Iran – Guide to Skiing and Snowboarding". Snowseasoncentral.com. 2015. Archived from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
- ^ "Dizi (IRI)". FIS. 15 December 2023. Archived from the original on 15 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2023.
- ^ "Iran: FIFA/Coca-Cola World Ranking". FIFA.com. Archived from the original on 14 April 2020. Retrieved 4 May 2020.
- ^ Hayward, Joshua. "Ranking the Top 20 Stadiums in World Football". Bleacher Report. Archived from the original on 29 February 2024. Retrieved 26 December 2023.
- ^ "AIPS Web Site – USA Volleyball president tips Iran to qualify for Rio". aipsmedia.com. 2 December 2011. Archived from the original on 15 October 2015. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
- ^ "WorldofVolley :: Volleyball pioneer Ahmad Masajedi says Iran's rise to the top won't stop". worldofvolley.com. 2 December 2011. Archived from the original on 15 October 2015. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
- ^ Alipour, Sam (21 April 2012). "Mission Improbable". ESPN. Archived from the original on 24 November 2012. Retrieved 21 April 2012.
- ^ parisa; Bakhtiari, Parisa (24 August 2019). "All About Haft-Sin: The 7 'S' of Iranian New Year". SURFIRAN Mag. Retrieved 26 December 2023.
- ^ "Norouz Persian New Year". British Museum. 25 March 2010. Archived from the original on 6 March 2010. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
- ^ "Proclamation of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity (2001–2005) – intangible heritage – Culture Sector – UNESCO". Unesco.org. 2000. Archived from the original on 28 January 2017. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
- ^ "General Assembly Fifty-fifth session 94th plenary meeting Friday, 9 March 2001, 10 a.m. New York" (PDF). United Nations General Assembly. 9 March 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 August 2006. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
- ^ "Nowrooz, a Persian New Year Celebration, Erupts in Iran – Yahoo!News". News.yahoo.com. 16 March 2010. Archived from the original on 22 March 2010. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
- ^ "US mulls Persian New Year outreach". Washington Times. 19 March 2010. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
- ^ "Call for Safe Yearend Celebration". Financial Tribune. 12 March 2017. Archived from the original on 6 August 2018. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
The ancient tradition has transformed over time from a simple bonfire to the use of firecrackers ...
- ^ "Light It Up! Iranians Celebrate Festival of Fire". NBC News. 19 March 2014. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
- ^ Rezaian, Lachin (20 December 2015). "Yalda: Iranian celebration of winter solstice". Mehr News Agency. Archived from the original on 23 April 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
- ^ Roessing, Lesley (2012). No More "us" and "them": Classroom Lessons and Activities to Promote Peer Respect. R&L Education. p. 89. ISBN 978-1-61048-812-9.
- ^ Hamedy, Saba (20 December 2013). "In ancient tradition, Iranians celebrate winter solstice". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 21 December 2018. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
- ^ Foltz, Richard (2013). Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present. Oneworld Publications. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-78074-307-3.
- ^ Alavi, Nasrin (8 November 2015). We Are Iran: The Persian Blogs. Soft Skull Press. p. 135.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Historical ceremonies of Iran". IRIB English Radio. 29 April 2013. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017.
... people in Mazandaran province celebrate Tirgan.
- ^ Ahmadzadeh, Fatemeh; Mohandespour, Farhad (February 2017). "Examining the Social Function of Dramatic Rituals of Mazandaran with Emphasis on Three Rituals of tir mā sizeŝu, bisto ڑeڑe aydimā, and èake se mā". Journal of History Culture and Art Research: 839. Archived from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
... Tirgan called tir mā sizeŝu (thirteen night of Tir) is still held in Mazandaran.
- ^ Mehraby, Rahman (22 March 2010). "Ceremonies in Iran". DestinationIran.com. Archived from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
... people in Mazandaran province celebrate Tirgan.
- ^ "Tirgan Festival in Markazi Province" (PDF). Iran Daily. 22 June 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
- ^ Leviton, Richard (16 July 2014). The Mertowney Mountain Interviews. iUniverse. p. 252. ISBN 978-1-4917-4129-0.
... the summer solstice festival, called Tiregan, ...
- ^ Hobson, Sarah; Lubchenco, Jane (5 August 1997). Revelation and the Environment, AD 95-1995. World Scientific. p. 151. ISBN 978-981-4545-69-3.
Tirgan, is a joyous celebration of water in the height of summer, ...
- ^ Leahy, Robert L. (2015). Emotional Schema Therapy. Guilford Publications. p. 212. ISBN 978-1-4625-2054-1.
... , Tirgan (thanksgiving for water), ...
- ^ "In Iran, Muslim youth are 'even more excited about Christmas than Christians'". France 24. 23 December 2013. Archived from the original on 19 June 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
- ^ "Iranian Jews observe Hanukkah". Al-Monitor. 28 November 2013. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
- ^ "Iran Jews Celebrate Passover, Persian-style". Haaretz. 25 April 2011. Archived from the original on 29 May 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
- ^ Holzel, David (24 May 2013). "Persian Passover". Washington Jewish Week. Archived from the original on 31 July 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
- ^ Dareini, Ali Akbar (31 January 2010). "Iranians celebrate ancient Persian fire fest". NBC News. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
- ^ "Ranking of the countries with the most public holidays". HR Dive. Archived from the original on 3 May 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
- ^ soheil (9 February 2022). "The Total Count of Public Holidays in Iran". Iran Tours IranAmaze. Archived from the original on 3 May 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
- ^ "Which countries have the most vacation days?". www.hcamag.com. Archived from the original on 3 May 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
- ^ Soltani, Zahra (23 March 2023). "Iran Holiday: National & Public Holidays in Iran (Persian Holidays)". IranOnTour. Archived from the original on 3 May 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
- ^ a b "Calendars" [The solar Hejrī (ٹ. = ٹamsī) and ٹāhanڑāhī calendars]. Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 4 July 2017.
- ^ a b "Iran Public Holidays 2017". Mystery of Iran. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
Bibliography
- Axworthy, Michael (2008). A History of Iran: Empire of the Mind. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-09876-7.
- Foltz, Richard (2016). Iran in World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-933550-3.
- Hamzeh'ee, M. Reza (1990). The Yaresan: a sociological, historical, and religio-historical study of a Kurdish community. Berlin: K. Schwarz. ISBN 3-922968-83-X. OCLC 23438701. Archived from the original on 13 October 2023. Retrieved 26 March 2024.
- Iran: A Country Study Archived 22 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine. 2008, Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 354 pp.
- Lawergren, Bo (2009). "Music History i. Pre-Islamic Iran". Encyclopædia Iranica. Leiden: Brill Publishers. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
- MacKenzie, David Niel (1998). "Ērān, Ērānڑahr". Encyclopedia Iranica. Vol. 8. Costa Mesa: Mazda. Archived from the original on 13 March 2017. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
- Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-336-1.
- Moin, Baqer (2000). Khomeini: Life of the Ayatollah. Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 0-312-26490-9.
- Fisher, William Bayne; Avery, P.; Hambly, G.R.G; Melville, C. (1991). The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 7. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-20095-0.
- Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-5163-7. Archived from the original on 15 January 2023. Retrieved 22 August 2017.
- Schmitt, Rüdiger (1987). "Aryans". Encyclopedia Iranica. Vol. 2. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 684–687. Archived from the original on 20 April 2019. Retrieved 11 March 2016.
- Shahbazi, Alireza Shapour (2004). "IRAJ". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 24 February 2024. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
- Tohidi, Nayareh (2009). "Ethnicity and Religious Minority Politics in Iran". In Gheissari, Ali (ed.). Contemporary Iran: Economy, Society, Politics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537849-8.
External links
- The e-office of the Supreme Leader of Iran Archived 6 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- The President of Iran Archived 27 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine
- Iran.ir Archived 17 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine (in Persian)
- Iran Archived 5 May 2024 at the Wayback Machine. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Iran web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
Wikimedia Atlas of Iran
.svg)
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
| Geographic | |
| Academics | |
| Artists | |
| People | |
| Other | |
- Iran
- 6th-century BC establishments
- Countries in Asia
- G15 nations
- Iranian plateau
- Islamic republics
- BRICS nations
- Member states of OPEC
- Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
- Member states of the United Nations
- Countries and territories where Persian is an official language
- States and territories established in the 6th century BC
- States and territories established in 1979
- West Asian countries
- 1979 establishments in Iran
- Former monarchies of West Asia
- Kurdish-speaking countries and territories
- Developing 8 Countries member states
- Theocracies
- Religion and politics