Toll-like receptor 4: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
AnomieBOT (talk | contribs)
Bots
6,261,499 edits
mNo edit summary
Line 2: Line 2:
{{Short description|Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens}}
{{Short description|Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens}}
{{Infobox_gene}}
{{Infobox_gene}}
'''Toll-like receptor 4''' (TLR4) is a transmembrane [[protein]] of approximately 95 kDa that is encoded by the ''TLR4'' [[gene]]. TLR4 has also been designated as '''CD284''' ([[cluster of differentiation]] 284).
'''Toll-like receptor 4''' (TLR4) is a transmembrane [[protein]] of approximately 95 kDa that is encoded by the ''TLR4'' [[gene]]. TLR4 is also designated as '''CD284''' ([[cluster of differentiation]] 284).


'''TLR4''' belongs to the [[toll-like receptor]] family which is representative of the [[pattern recognition receptor]]<nowiki/>s (PRR), so named for their ability to recognize evolutionarily conserved components of microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites) called [[Pathogen-associated molecular pattern|pathogen-associated molecular patterns]] (PAMPs). The recognition of a PAMP by a PRR triggers rapid activation of the innate immunity essential to fight infectious diseases.<ref name="pmid25071777">{{cite journal | vauthors = Vaure C, Liu Y | title = A comparative review of toll-like receptor 4 expression and functionality in different animal species | journal = Frontiers in Immunology | volume = 5 | page = 316 | date = 2014 | pmid = 25071777 | pmc = 4090903 | doi = 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00316 | doi-access = free }}</ref>TLR4 is expressed on [[Myeloid tissue|myeloid]] cells such as dendritic cells (DC), monocytes, macrophages, erythrocytes, granulocytes, but also on activated B cells. It is also expressed at a lower level on some non-immune cells, including epithelium, endothelium, placental cells and beta cells in Langerhans islets.<ref name="pmid25071777" />
'''TLR4''' belongs to the [[toll-like receptor]] family which is representative of the [[pattern recognition receptor]]<nowiki/>s (PRR), so named for their ability to recognize evolutionarily conserved components of microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites) called [[Pathogen-associated molecular pattern|pathogen-associated molecular patterns]] (PAMPs). The recognition of a PAMP by a PRR triggers rapid activation of the innate immunity essential to fight infectious diseases.<ref name="pmid25071777">{{cite journal | vauthors = Vaure C, Liu Y | title = A comparative review of toll-like receptor 4 expression and functionality in different animal species | journal = Frontiers in Immunology | volume = 5 | page = 316 | date = 2014 | pmid = 25071777 | pmc = 4090903 | doi = 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00316 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

TLR4 is expressed in immune cells mainly of myeloid origin, including monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells (DC). <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vaure |first=Céline |last2=Liu |first2=Yuanqing |date=2014 |title=A Comparative Review of Toll-Like Receptor 4 Expression and Functionality in Different Animal Species |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/immunology/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2014.00316 |journal=Frontiers in Immunology |volume=5 |doi=10.3389/fimmu.2014.00316 |issn=1664-3224 |pmc=PMC4090903 |pmid=25071777}}</ref> It is also expressed at a lower level on some non-immune cells, including epithelium, endothelium, placental cells and beta cells in Langerhans islets. Most myeloid cells express also high amounts of plasma membrane-anchored CD14, which facilitates the activation of TLR4 by LPS and controls the subsequent internalization of the LPS-activated TLR4 important for receptor signaling and degradation. <ref>{{Citation |last=Mahnke |first=Karsten |title=CD14 is Expressed by Subsets of Murine Dendritic Cells and Upregulated by Lipopolysaccharide |date=1997 |work=Dendritic Cells in Fundamental and Clinical Immunology |volume=417 |pages=145–159 |editor-last=Ricciardi-Castagnoli |editor-first=Paola |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4757-9966-8_25 |access-date=2024-02-13 |place=Boston, MA |publisher=Springer US |doi=10.1007/978-1-4757-9966-8_25 |isbn=978-1-4757-9968-2 |last2=Becher |first2=Eva |last3=Ricciardi-Castagnoli |first3=Paola |last4=Luger |first4=Thomas A. |last5=Schwarz |first5=Thomas |last6=Grabbe |first6=Stephan}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sabroe |first=Ian |last2=Jones |first2=Elizabeth C. |last3=Usher |first3=Lynne R. |last4=Whyte |first4=Moira K. B. |last5=Dower |first5=Steven K. |date=2002-05-01 |title=Toll-Like Receptor (TLR)2 and TLR4 in Human Peripheral Blood Granulocytes: A Critical Role for Monocytes in Leukocyte Lipopolysaccharide Responses |url=https://journals.aai.org/jimmunol/article/168/9/4701/70779/Toll-Like-Receptor-TLR-2-and-TLR4-in-Human |journal=The Journal of Immunology |language=en |volume=168 |issue=9 |pages=4701–4710 |doi=10.4049/jimmunol.168.9.4701 |issn=0022-1767}}</ref>


TLR4 is activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a major component of the outer membrane of [[Gram-negative bacteria]] and some [[Gram-positive bacteria]]. TLR4 can also be activated by endogenous compounds called damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), including high mobility group box protein 1 (HMGB1) and hyaluronic acid. These compounds are released during tissue injury and can activate TLR4 in non-infectious conditions to induce tissue repair.<ref name="pmid25559892">{{Cite journal |last=Yang |first=Huan |last2=Wang |first2=Haichao |last3=Ju |first3=Zhongliang |last4=Ragab |first4=Ahmed A. |last5=Lundbäck |first5=Peter |last6=Long |first6=Wei |last7=Valdes-Ferrer |first7=Sergio I. |last8=He |first8=Mingzhu |last9=Pribis |first9=John P. |last10=Li |first10=Jianhua |last11=Lu |first11=Ben |last12=Gero |first12=Domokos |last13=Szabo |first13=Csaba |last14=Antoine |first14=Daniel J. |last15=Harris |first15=Helena E. |date=2015-01-05 |title=MD-2 is required for disulfide HMGB1–dependent TLR4 signaling |journal=Journal of Experimental Medicine |volume=212 |issue=1 |pages=5–14 |doi=10.1084/jem.20141318 |issn=1540-9538 |pmc=4291531 |pmid=25559892}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jiang |first=Dianhua |last2=Liang |first2=Jiurong |last3=Fan |first3=Juan |last4=Yu |first4=Shuang |last5=Chen |first5=Suping |last6=Luo |first6=Yi |last7=Prestwich |first7=Glenn D. |last8=Mascarenhas |first8=Marcella M. |last9=Garg |first9=Hari G. |last10=Quinn |first10=Deborah A. |last11=Homer |first11=Robert J. |last12=Goldstein |first12=Daniel R. |last13=Bucala |first13=Richard |last14=Lee |first14=Patty J. |last15=Medzhitov |first15=Ruslan |date=November 2005 |title=Regulation of lung injury and repair by Toll-like receptors and hyaluronan |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nm1315 |journal=Nature Medicine |language=en |volume=11 |issue=11 |pages=1173–1179 |doi=10.1038/nm1315 |issn=1546-170X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fang |first=Hongliang |last2=Ang |first2=Bing |last3=Xu |first3=Xinyun |last4=Huang |first4=Xiaohui |last5=Wu |first5=Yanfeng |last6=Sun |first6=Yanping |last7=Wang |first7=Wenying |last8=Li |first8=Nan |last9=Cao |first9=Xuetao |last10=Wan |first10=Tao |date=March 2014 |title=TLR4 is essential for dendritic cell activation and anti-tumor T-cell response enhancement by DAMPs released from chemically stressed cancer cells |journal=Cellular & Molecular Immunology |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=150–159 |doi=10.1038/cmi.2013.59 |issn=2042-0226 |pmc=4003380 |pmid=24362470}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hernandez |first=C. |last2=Huebener |first2=P. |last3=Schwabe |first3=R. F. |date=2016-11-17 |title=Damage-associated molecular patterns in cancer: a double-edged sword |journal=Oncogene |volume=35 |issue=46 |pages=5931–5941 |doi=10.1038/onc.2016.104 |issn=1476-5594 |pmc=5119456 |pmid=27086930}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jang |first=Gun-Young |last2=Lee |first2=Ji Won |last3=Kim |first3=Young Seob |last4=Lee |first4=Sung Eun |last5=Han |first5=Hee Dong |last6=Hong |first6=Kee-Jong |last7=Kang |first7=Tae Heung |last8=Park |first8=Yeong-Min |date=December 2020 |title=Interactions between tumor-derived proteins and Toll-like receptors |journal=Experimental & Molecular Medicine |volume=52 |issue=12 |pages=1926–1935 |doi=10.1038/s12276-020-00540-4 |issn=2092-6413 |pmc=8080774 |pmid=33299138}}</ref> Apart from LPS and its derivatives, up to 30 natural TLR4 agonists with diverse chemical structures have been postulated. However, besides DAMPs, the others have not demonstrated to be direct activators of TLR4 and could therefore act as chaperones for TLR4 or as promoters of LPS internalization.<ref name="pmid25559892" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Manček-Keber |first=Mateja |last2=Jerala |first2=Roman |date=February 2015 |title=Postulates for validating TLR4 agonists |journal=European Journal of Immunology |language=en |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=356–370 |doi=10.1002/eji.201444462 |doi-access=free |issn=0014-2980}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Ho Min |last2=Kim |first2=You-Me |date=October 2018 |title=HMGB1: LPS Delivery Vehicle for Caspase-11-Mediated Pyroptosis |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1074761318304369 |journal=Immunity |language=en |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=582–584 |doi=10.1016/j.immuni.2018.09.021}}</ref>
TLR4 is activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a major component of the outer membrane of [[Gram-negative bacteria]] and some [[Gram-positive bacteria]]. TLR4 can also be activated by endogenous compounds called damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), including high mobility group box protein 1 (HMGB1) and hyaluronic acid. These compounds are released during tissue injury and can activate TLR4 in non-infectious conditions to induce tissue repair.<ref name="pmid25559892">{{Cite journal |last=Yang |first=Huan |last2=Wang |first2=Haichao |last3=Ju |first3=Zhongliang |last4=Ragab |first4=Ahmed A. |last5=Lundbäck |first5=Peter |last6=Long |first6=Wei |last7=Valdes-Ferrer |first7=Sergio I. |last8=He |first8=Mingzhu |last9=Pribis |first9=John P. |last10=Li |first10=Jianhua |last11=Lu |first11=Ben |last12=Gero |first12=Domokos |last13=Szabo |first13=Csaba |last14=Antoine |first14=Daniel J. |last15=Harris |first15=Helena E. |date=2015-01-05 |title=MD-2 is required for disulfide HMGB1–dependent TLR4 signaling |journal=Journal of Experimental Medicine |volume=212 |issue=1 |pages=5–14 |doi=10.1084/jem.20141318 |issn=1540-9538 |pmc=4291531 |pmid=25559892}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jiang |first=Dianhua |last2=Liang |first2=Jiurong |last3=Fan |first3=Juan |last4=Yu |first4=Shuang |last5=Chen |first5=Suping |last6=Luo |first6=Yi |last7=Prestwich |first7=Glenn D. |last8=Mascarenhas |first8=Marcella M. |last9=Garg |first9=Hari G. |last10=Quinn |first10=Deborah A. |last11=Homer |first11=Robert J. |last12=Goldstein |first12=Daniel R. |last13=Bucala |first13=Richard |last14=Lee |first14=Patty J. |last15=Medzhitov |first15=Ruslan |date=November 2005 |title=Regulation of lung injury and repair by Toll-like receptors and hyaluronan |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nm1315 |journal=Nature Medicine |language=en |volume=11 |issue=11 |pages=1173–1179 |doi=10.1038/nm1315 |issn=1546-170X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fang |first=Hongliang |last2=Ang |first2=Bing |last3=Xu |first3=Xinyun |last4=Huang |first4=Xiaohui |last5=Wu |first5=Yanfeng |last6=Sun |first6=Yanping |last7=Wang |first7=Wenying |last8=Li |first8=Nan |last9=Cao |first9=Xuetao |last10=Wan |first10=Tao |date=March 2014 |title=TLR4 is essential for dendritic cell activation and anti-tumor T-cell response enhancement by DAMPs released from chemically stressed cancer cells |journal=Cellular & Molecular Immunology |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=150–159 |doi=10.1038/cmi.2013.59 |issn=2042-0226 |pmc=4003380 |pmid=24362470}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hernandez |first=C. |last2=Huebener |first2=P. |last3=Schwabe |first3=R. F. |date=2016-11-17 |title=Damage-associated molecular patterns in cancer: a double-edged sword |journal=Oncogene |volume=35 |issue=46 |pages=5931–5941 |doi=10.1038/onc.2016.104 |issn=1476-5594 |pmc=5119456 |pmid=27086930}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jang |first=Gun-Young |last2=Lee |first2=Ji Won |last3=Kim |first3=Young Seob |last4=Lee |first4=Sung Eun |last5=Han |first5=Hee Dong |last6=Hong |first6=Kee-Jong |last7=Kang |first7=Tae Heung |last8=Park |first8=Yeong-Min |date=December 2020 |title=Interactions between tumor-derived proteins and Toll-like receptors |journal=Experimental & Molecular Medicine |volume=52 |issue=12 |pages=1926–1935 |doi=10.1038/s12276-020-00540-4 |issn=2092-6413 |pmc=8080774 |pmid=33299138}}</ref> Apart from LPS and its derivatives, up to 30 natural TLR4 agonists with diverse chemical structures have been postulated. However, besides DAMPs, the others have not demonstrated to be direct activators of TLR4 and could therefore act as chaperones for TLR4 or as promoters of LPS internalization.<ref name="pmid25559892" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Manček-Keber |first=Mateja |last2=Jerala |first2=Roman |date=February 2015 |title=Postulates for validating TLR4 agonists |journal=European Journal of Immunology |language=en |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=356–370 |doi=10.1002/eji.201444462 |doi-access=free |issn=0014-2980}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Ho Min |last2=Kim |first2=You-Me |date=October 2018 |title=HMGB1: LPS Delivery Vehicle for Caspase-11-Mediated Pyroptosis |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1074761318304369 |journal=Immunity |language=en |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=582–584 |doi=10.1016/j.immuni.2018.09.021}}</ref>

Revision as of 11:13, 13 February 2024

TLR4
Available structures
PDBOrtholog search: PDBe RCSB
Identifiers
AliasesTLR4, ARMD10, CD284, TLR-4, TOLL, toll like receptor 4
External IDsOMIM: 603030 MGI: 96824 HomoloGene: 41317 GeneCards: TLR4
Orthologs
SpeciesHumanMouse
Entrez

7099

21898

Ensembl

ENSG00000136869

ENSMUSG00000039005

UniProt

O00206

Q9QUK6

RefSeq (mRNA)

NM_138557
NM_003266
NM_138554
NM_138556

NM_021297

RefSeq (protein)

NP_003257
NP_612564
NP_612567

NP_067272

Location (UCSC)Chr 9: 117.7 – 117.72 MbChr 4: 66.75 – 66.85 Mb
PubMed search[3][4]
Wikidata
View/Edit HumanView/Edit Mouse

Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is a transmembrane protein of approximately 95 kDa that is encoded by the TLR4 gene. TLR4 is also designated as CD284 (cluster of differentiation 284).

TLR4 belongs to the toll-like receptor family which is representative of the pattern recognition receptors (PRR), so named for their ability to recognize evolutionarily conserved components of microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites) called pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). The recognition of a PAMP by a PRR triggers rapid activation of the innate immunity essential to fight infectious diseases.[5]

TLR4 is expressed in immune cells mainly of myeloid origin, including monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells (DC). [6] It is also expressed at a lower level on some non-immune cells, including epithelium, endothelium, placental cells and beta cells in Langerhans islets. Most myeloid cells express also high amounts of plasma membrane-anchored CD14, which facilitates the activation of TLR4 by LPS and controls the subsequent internalization of the LPS-activated TLR4 important for receptor signaling and degradation. [7][8]

TLR4 is activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a major component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria and some Gram-positive bacteria. TLR4 can also be activated by endogenous compounds called damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), including high mobility group box protein 1 (HMGB1) and hyaluronic acid. These compounds are released during tissue injury and can activate TLR4 in non-infectious conditions to induce tissue repair.[9][10][11][12][13] Apart from LPS and its derivatives, up to 30 natural TLR4 agonists with diverse chemical structures have been postulated. However, besides DAMPs, the others have not demonstrated to be direct activators of TLR4 and could therefore act as chaperones for TLR4 or as promoters of LPS internalization.[9][14][15]

Function

TLR4 is a member of the toll-like receptor (TLR) family, which plays a fundamental role in pathogen recognition and activation of innate immunity. They recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) that are expressed on infectious agents, and mediate the production of cytokines necessary for the development of effective immunity. TLRs are highly conserved from plants to Drosophila to humans and share structural and functional similarities.

The various TLRs exhibit different patterns of expression. This receptor is most abundantly expressed in placenta, and in myelomonocytic subpopulation of the leukocytes.

It cooperates with LY96 (also referred as MD-2) and CD14 to mediate in signal transduction events induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)[16] found in most gram-negative bacteria. Mutations in this gene have been associated with differences in LPS responsiveness.

TLR4 signaling responds to signals by forming a complex using an extracellular leucine-rich repeat domain (LRR) and an intracellular toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domain. LPS stimulation induces a series of interactions with several accessory proteins which form the TLR4 complex on the cell surface. LPS recognition is initiated by an LPS binding to an LBP protein. This LPS-LBP complex transfers the LPS to CD14. CD14 is a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored membrane protein that binds the LPS-LBP complex and facilitates the transfer of LPS to MD-2 protein, which is associated with the extracellular domain of TLR4. LPS binding promotes the dimerization of TLR4/MD-2. The conformational changes of the TLR4 induce the recruitment of intracellular adaptor proteins containing the TIR domain which is necessary to activate the downstream signaling pathway.[17]

Several transcript variants of this gene have been found, but the protein-coding potential of most of them is uncertain.[18]

Most of the reported effects of TLR4 signaling in tumors are pro-carcinogenic mainly due to contributions of proinflammatory cytokine signaling (whose expression is driven by TLR-mediated signals) to tumor-promoting microenvironment.[19]

Signaling

Upon LPS recognition, conformational changes in the TLR4 receptors result in recruitment of intracellular TIR-domains containing adaptor molecules. These adaptors are associated with the TLR4 cluster via homophilic interactions between the TIR domains. There are four adaptor proteins involved in two major intracellular signaling pathways.[20]

Signaling pathway of toll-like receptor 4. Dashed grey lines represent unknown associations

MyD88 – dependent pathway

The MyD88-dependent pathway is regulated by two adaptor-associated proteins: Myeloid Differentiation Primary Response Gene 88 (MyD88) and TIR Domain-Containing Adaptor Protein (TIRAP). TIRAP-MyD88 regulates early NF-κβ activation and production of proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-12.[5] MyD88 signaling involves the activation of IL-1 Receptor-Associated Kinases (IRAKs) and the adaptor molecules TNF Receptor-Associated Factor 6 (TRAF6). TRAF6 induces the activation of TAK1 (Transforming growth factor-β-Activated Kinase 1) that leads to the activation of MAPK cascades (Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase) and IKK (IκB Kinase). IKKs' signaling pathway leads to the induction of the transcription factor NF-κB, while activation of MAPK cascades lead to the activation of another transcription factor AP-1. Both of them have a role in the expression of proinflammatory cytokines.[17] The activation of NF-κB via TAK-1 is complex, and it starts by the assembly of a protein complex called the signalosome, which is made of a scaffolding protein, called NEMO. The protein complex is made from two different κB kinases, called IKKα and IKKβ. This causes the addition of a small regulatory protein to the signalosome called ubiquitin, that acts to initiate the release of the NF-κB protein, which coordinates translocation in the nucleus of cytokines.[21]

MyD88 – independent pathway

This TRIF-dependent pathway involves the recruitment of the adaptor proteins TIR-domain-containing adaptor inducing interferon-β (TRIF) and TRIF-related Adaptor Molecule (TRAM). TRAM-TRIF signals activate the transcription factor Interferon Regulatory Factor-3 (IRF3) via TRAF3. IRF3 activation induces the production of type 1 interferons.[20]

SARM – TRIF-mediated pathway

A fifth TIR-domain-containing adaptor protein called Sterile α and HEAT (Armadillo motif) (SARM) is a TLR4 signaling pathway inhibitor. SARM activation by LPS-binding inhibits -TRIF-mediated pathways but does not inhibit MyD88-mediated pathways. This mechanism prevents an excessive activation in response to LPS which may lead to inflammation-induced damage such as sepsis.[17]

Evolutionary history

TLR4 originated when TLR2 and TLR4 diverged about 500 million years ago near the beginning of vertebrate evolution.[22] Sequence alignments of human and great ape TLR4 exons have demonstrated that not much evolution has occurred in human TLR4 since our divergence from our last common ancestor with chimpanzees; human and chimp TLR4 exons only differ by three substitutions while humans and baboons are 93.5% similar in the extracellular domain.[23] Notably, humans possess a greater number of early stop codons in TLR4 than great apes; in a study of 158 humans worldwide, 0.6% had a nonsense mutation.[24][25] This suggests that there are weaker evolutionary pressures on the human TLR4 than on our primate relatives. The distribution of human TLR4 polymorphisms matches the out-of-Africa migration, and it is likely that the polymorphisms were generated in Africa before migration to other continents.[25][26]

Interactions

TLR4 has been shown to interact with:

Intracellular trafficking of TLR4 is dependent on the GTPase Rab-11a, and knock down of Rab-11a results in hampered TLR4 recruitment to E. coli-containing phagosomes and subsequent reduced signal transduction through the MyD88-independent pathway.[35]

Clinical significance

Various single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of the TLR4 in humans have been identified[36] and for some of them an association with increased susceptibility to Gram-negative bacterial infections [37] or faster progression and a more severe course of sepsis in critically ill patients was reported.[38]

In sepsis

TLR4 can be activated by binding to the lipid A portion of lipopolysaccharide found in Gram-negative bacteria.[39] Exaggerated and uncontrolled inflammation triggered by TLR4 during infection can lead to sepsis and septic shock.[40] Infections with Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are the prevailing causes of severe sepsis in humans.[40]

In insulin resistance

Fetuin-A facilitates the binding of lipids to receptors, thereby contributing to insulin resistance.[41]

In cancer progression

TLR4 expression can be detected on many tumor cells and cell lines. TLR4 is capable of activating MAPK and NF-κB pathways, implicating possible direct role of cell-autonomous TLR4 signaling in regulation of carcinogenesis, in particular, through increased proliferation of tumor cells, apoptosis inhibition and metastasis. TLR4 signaling may also contribute to resistance to paclitaxel chemotherapy in ovary cancer and siRNA therapy in prostate cancer. 63% of breast cancer patients were reported to express TLR4 on tumor cells and the level of expression inversely correlated with the survival. Additionally, low MyD88 expression correlated with decreased metastasis to the lung and decreased CCL2 and CCL5 expression. TLR4 expression levels were the highest among TLRs in human breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 and TLR4 knockdown resulted in decreased proliferation and decreased IL-6 and IL-8 levels. On the other hand, TLR4 signaling in immune and inflammatory cells of tumor microenvironment may lead to production of proinflammatory cytokines (TNF, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-18, etc.), immunosuppressive cytokines (IL-10, TGF-β, etc.) and angiogenic mediators (VEGF, EGF, TGF-β, etc.).

These activities may result in further polarization of tumor-associated macrophages, conversion of fibroblasts into tumor-promoting cancer-associated fibroblasts, conversion of dendritic cells into tumor-associated DCs and activation of pro-tumorigenic functions of immature myeloid cells - Myeloid-derived Suppressor Cells (MDSC). TLR signaling has been linked to accumulation and function of MDSC at the site of tumor and it also allows mesenchymal stromal cells to counter NK cell-mediated anti-tumor immunity. In HepG2 hepatoblastoma cells LPS increased TLR4 levels, cell proliferation and resistance to chemotherapy, and these phenomena could be reversed by TLR4 gene knockdown. Similarly, LPS stimulation of human liver cancer cell line H7402 resulted in TLR4 upregulation, NF-κB activation, TNF, IL-6 and IL-8 production and increased proliferation that could be reversed by signal transducer and STAT3 inhibition. Besides the successful usage of Bacillus Calmette–Guérin in the therapy of bladder cancer there are reports on the treatment of oral squamous cell carcinoma, gastric cancer and cervical cancer with lyophilized streptococcal preparation OK-432 and utilization of TLR4/TLR2 ligands – derivatives of muramyl dipeptide.[19]

TLR4 stimulates B-cell responsiveness to Pokeweed mitogen for proliferation which can play a role in inhibiting tumor development.[42]

In pregnancy

Activation of TLR4 in intrauterine infections leads to deregulation of prostaglandin synthesis, leading to uterine smooth muscle contraction.[citation needed]

Asp299Gly polymorphism

Classically, TLR4 is said to be the receptor for LPS, however TLR4 has also been shown to be activated by other kinds of lipids. Plasmodium falciparum, a parasite known to cause the most common and serious form of malaria that is seen primarily in Africa, produces glycosylphosphatidylinositol, which can activate TLR4.[43] Two SNPs in TLR4 are co-expressed with high penetrance in African populations (i.e. TLR-4-Asp299Gly and TLR-4-Thr399Ile). These Polymorphisms are associated with an increase in TLR4-Mediated IL-10 production—an immunomodulator—and a decrease in proinflammatory cytokines.[44] The TLR-4-Asp299Gly point mutation is strongly correlated with an increased infection rate with Plasmodium falciparum. It appears that the mutation prevents TLR4 from acting as vigorously against, at least some plasmodial infections. The malaria infection rate and associated morbidity are higher in TLR-4-Asp299Gly group, but mortality appears to be decreased. This may indicate that at least part of the pathogenesis of malaria takes advantage of cytokine production. By reducing the cytokine production via the TLR4 mutation, the infection rate may increase, but the number of deaths due to the infection seem to decrease.[43]

In addition, TLR4-D299G has been associated with aggressive colorectal cancer in humans. It has been shown that human colon adenocarcinomas from patients with TLR4-D299G were more frequently of an advanced stage with metastasis than those with wild-type TLR4. The same study demonstrated functionally that intestinal epithelial cells (Caco-2) expressing TLR4-D299G underwent epithelial-mesenchymal transition and morphologic changes associated with tumor progression, whereas intestinal epithelial cells expressing wild-type TLR4 did not.[45]

Animal studies

A link between the TLR4 receptor and binge drinking has been suggested. When genes responsible for the expression of TLR4 and GABA receptors are manipulated in rodents that had been bred and trained to drink excessively, the animals showed a "profound reduction" in drinking behaviours.[46] Additionally, it has been shown that ethanol, even in the absence of LPS, can activate TLR4 signaling pathways.[47]

High levels of TLR4 molecules and M2 tumor-associated macrophages are associated with increased susceptibility to cancer growth in mice deprived of sleep. Mice genetically modified so that they could not produce TLR4 molecules showed normal cancer growth.[48]

Drugs targeting TLR4

Toll-like receptor 4 has been shown to be important for the long-term side-effects of opioid analgesic drugs. Various μ-opioid receptor ligands have been tested and found to also possess action as agonists or antagonists of TLR4, with opioid agonists such as (+)-morphine being TLR4 agonists, while opioid antagonists such as naloxone were found to be TLR4 antagonists. Activation of TLR4 leads to downstream release of inflammatory modulators including TNF-α and Interleukin-1, and constant low-level release of these modulators is thought to reduce the efficacy of opioid drug treatment with time, and be involved in both the development of tolerance to opioid analgesic drugs,[49][50] and in the emergence of side-effects such as hyperalgesia and allodynia that can become a problem following extended use of opioid drugs.[51][52] Drugs that block the action of TNF-α or IL-1β have been shown to increase the analgesic effects of opioids and reduce the development of tolerance and other side-effects,[53][54] and this has also been demonstrated with drugs that block TLR4 itself.

The response of TLR4 to opioid drugs has been found to be enantiomer-independent, so the "unnatural" enantiomers of opioid drugs such as morphine and naloxone, which lack affinity for opioid receptors, still produce the same activity at TLR4 as their "normal" enantiomers.[55][56] This means that the unnatural enantiomers of opioid antagonists, such as (+)-naloxone, can be used to block the TLR4 activity of opioid analgesic drugs, while leaving the μ-opioid receptor mediated analgesic activity unaffected.[57][56][58] This may also be the mechanism behind the beneficial effect of ultra-low dose naltrexone on opioid analgesia.[59]

Morphine causes inflammation by binding to the protein lymphocyte antigen 96, which, in turn, causes the protein to bind to Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4).[60] The morphine-induced TLR4 activation attenuates pain suppression by opioids and enhances the development of opioid tolerance and addiction, drug abuse, and other negative side effects such as respiratory depression and hyperalgesia. Drug candidates that target TLR4 may improve opioid-based pain management therapies.[61]

Agonists

Antagonists

As of 2020, there were no specific TLR4 antagonists approved as drugs.[70]

References

  1. ^ a b c GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000136869 – Ensembl, May 2017
  2. ^ a b c GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ENSMUSG00000039005 – Ensembl, May 2017
  3. ^ "Human PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  4. ^ "Mouse PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  5. ^ a b Vaure C, Liu Y (2014). "A comparative review of toll-like receptor 4 expression and functionality in different animal species". Frontiers in Immunology. 5: 316. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2014.00316. PMC 4090903. PMID 25071777.
  6. ^ Vaure C, Liu Y (2014). "A Comparative Review of Toll-Like Receptor 4 Expression and Functionality in Different Animal Species". Frontiers in Immunology. 5. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2014.00316. ISSN 1664-3224. PMC 4090903. PMID 25071777.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  7. ^ Mahnke K, Becher E, Ricciardi-Castagnoli P, Luger TA, Schwarz T, Grabbe S (1997), Ricciardi-Castagnoli P (ed.), "CD14 is Expressed by Subsets of Murine Dendritic Cells and Upregulated by Lipopolysaccharide", Dendritic Cells in Fundamental and Clinical Immunology, vol. 417, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 145–159, doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-9966-8_25, ISBN 978-1-4757-9968-2, retrieved 2024-02-13
  8. ^ Sabroe I, Jones EC, Usher LR, Whyte MK, Dower SK (2002-05-01). "Toll-Like Receptor (TLR)2 and TLR4 in Human Peripheral Blood Granulocytes: A Critical Role for Monocytes in Leukocyte Lipopolysaccharide Responses". The Journal of Immunology. 168 (9): 4701–4710. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.168.9.4701. ISSN 0022-1767.
  9. ^ a b Yang H, Wang H, Ju Z, Ragab AA, Lundbäck P, Long W, Valdes-Ferrer SI, He M, Pribis JP, Li J, Lu B, Gero D, Szabo C, Antoine DJ, Harris HE (2015-01-05). "MD-2 is required for disulfide HMGB1–dependent TLR4 signaling". Journal of Experimental Medicine. 212 (1): 5–14. doi:10.1084/jem.20141318. ISSN 1540-9538. PMC 4291531. PMID 25559892.
  10. ^ Jiang D, Liang J, Fan J, Yu S, Chen S, Luo Y, Prestwich GD, Mascarenhas MM, Garg HG, Quinn DA, Homer RJ, Goldstein DR, Bucala R, Lee PJ, Medzhitov R (November 2005). "Regulation of lung injury and repair by Toll-like receptors and hyaluronan". Nature Medicine. 11 (11): 1173–1179. doi:10.1038/nm1315. ISSN 1546-170X.
  11. ^ Fang H, Ang B, Xu X, Huang X, Wu Y, Sun Y, Wang W, Li N, Cao X, Wan T (March 2014). "TLR4 is essential for dendritic cell activation and anti-tumor T-cell response enhancement by DAMPs released from chemically stressed cancer cells". Cellular & Molecular Immunology. 11 (2): 150–159. doi:10.1038/cmi.2013.59. ISSN 2042-0226. PMC 4003380. PMID 24362470.
  12. ^ Hernandez C, Huebener P, Schwabe RF (2016-11-17). "Damage-associated molecular patterns in cancer: a double-edged sword". Oncogene. 35 (46): 5931–5941. doi:10.1038/onc.2016.104. ISSN 1476-5594. PMC 5119456. PMID 27086930.
  13. ^ Jang GY, Lee JW, Kim YS, Lee SE, Han HD, Hong KJ, Kang TH, Park YM (December 2020). "Interactions between tumor-derived proteins and Toll-like receptors". Experimental & Molecular Medicine. 52 (12): 1926–1935. doi:10.1038/s12276-020-00540-4. ISSN 2092-6413. PMC 8080774. PMID 33299138.
  14. ^ Manček-Keber M, Jerala R (February 2015). "Postulates for validating TLR4 agonists". European Journal of Immunology. 45 (2): 356–370. doi:10.1002/eji.201444462. ISSN 0014-2980.
  15. ^ Kim HM, Kim YM (October 2018). "HMGB1: LPS Delivery Vehicle for Caspase-11-Mediated Pyroptosis". Immunity. 49 (4): 582–584. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2018.09.021.
  16. ^ "O00206 (TLR4_HUMAN)". Uniprot.
  17. ^ a b c Lu YC, Yeh WC, Ohashi PS (May 2008). "LPS/TLR4 signal transduction pathway". Cytokine. 42 (2): 145–151. doi:10.1016/j.cyto.2008.01.006. PMID 18304834.
  18. ^ "Entrez Gene: TLR4 toll-like receptor 4".
  19. ^ a b Korneev KV, Atretkhany KN, Drutskaya MS, Grivennikov SI, Kuprash DV, Nedospasov SA (January 2017). "TLR-signaling and proinflammatory cytokines as drivers of tumorigenesis". Cytokine. 89: 127–135. doi:10.1016/j.cyto.2016.01.021. PMID 26854213.
  20. ^ a b O'Neill LA, Golenbock D, Bowie AG (June 2013). "The history of Toll-like receptors - redefining innate immunity". Nature Reviews. Immunology. 13 (6): 453–460. doi:10.1038/nri3446. hdl:2262/72552. PMID 23681101. S2CID 205491986.
  21. ^ Pålsson-McDermott EM, O'Neill LA (October 2004). "Signal transduction by the lipopolysaccharide receptor, Toll-like receptor-4". Immunology. 113 (2): 153–162. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2004.01976.x. PMC 1782563. PMID 15379975.
  22. ^ Beutler B, Rehli M (2002). "Evolution of the TIR, Tolls and TLRS: Functional Inferences from Computational Biology". Toll-Like Receptor Family Members and Their Ligands. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 270. pp. 1–21. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-59430-4_1. ISBN 978-3-642-63975-3. PMID 12467241.
  23. ^ Smirnova I, Poltorak A, Chan EK, McBride C, Beutler B (2000). "Phylogenetic variation and polymorphism at the toll-like receptor 4 locus (TLR4)". Genome Biology. 1 (1): RESEARCH002. doi:10.1186/gb-2000-1-1-research002. PMC 31919. PMID 11104518.
  24. ^ Quach H, Wilson D, Laval G, Patin E, Manry J, Guibert J, et al. (December 2013). "Different selective pressures shape the evolution of Toll-like receptors in human and African great ape populations". Human Molecular Genetics. 22 (23): 4829–4840. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddt335. PMC 3820138. PMID 23851028.
  25. ^ a b Barreiro LB, Ben-Ali M, Quach H, Laval G, Patin E, Pickrell JK, et al. (July 2009). "Evolutionary dynamics of human Toll-like receptors and their different contributions to host defense". PLOS Genetics. 5 (7): e1000562. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000562. PMC 2702086. PMID 19609346.
  26. ^ Plantinga TS, Ioana M, Alonso S, Izagirre N, Hervella M, Joosten LA, et al. (2012). "The evolutionary history of TLR4 polymorphisms in Europe". Journal of Innate Immunity. 4 (2): 168–175. doi:10.1159/000329492. PMC 6741577. PMID 21968286.
  27. ^ Re F, Strominger JL (June 2002). "Monomeric recombinant MD-2 binds toll-like receptor 4 tightly and confers lipopolysaccharide responsiveness". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 277 (26): 23427–23432. doi:10.1074/jbc.M202554200. PMID 11976338. S2CID 18706628.
  28. ^ Shimazu R, Akashi S, Ogata H, Nagai Y, Fukudome K, Miyake K, Kimoto M (June 1999). "MD-2, a molecule that confers lipopolysaccharide responsiveness on Toll-like receptor 4". The Journal of Experimental Medicine. 189 (11): 1777–1782. doi:10.1084/jem.189.11.1777. PMC 2193086. PMID 10359581.
  29. ^ Chuang TH, Ulevitch RJ (May 2004). "Triad3A, an E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase regulating Toll-like receptors". Nature Immunology. 5 (5): 495–502. doi:10.1038/ni1066. PMID 15107846. S2CID 39773935.
  30. ^ Doyle SE, O'Connell R, Vaidya SA, Chow EK, Yee K, Cheng G (April 2003). "Toll-like receptor 3 mediates a more potent antiviral response than Toll-like receptor 4". Journal of Immunology. 170 (7): 3565–3571. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.170.7.3565. PMID 12646618. S2CID 5239330.
  31. ^ Rhee SH, Hwang D (November 2000). "Murine TOLL-like receptor 4 confers lipopolysaccharide responsiveness as determined by activation of NF kappa B and expression of the inducible cyclooxygenase". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 275 (44): 34035–34040. doi:10.1074/jbc.M007386200. PMID 10952994. S2CID 24729575.
  32. ^ Fitzgerald KA, Palsson-McDermott EM, Bowie AG, Jefferies CA, Mansell AS, Brady G, et al. (September 2001). "Mal (MyD88-adapter-like) is required for Toll-like receptor-4 signal transduction". Nature. 413 (6851): 78–83. Bibcode:2001Natur.413...78F. doi:10.1038/35092578. PMID 11544529. S2CID 4333764.
  33. ^ Zhang G, Ghosh S (March 2002). "Negative regulation of toll-like receptor-mediated signaling by Tollip". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 277 (9): 7059–7065. doi:10.1074/jbc.M109537200. PMID 11751856. S2CID 30854510.
  34. ^ Peana M, Zdyb K, Medici S, Pelucelli A, Simula G, Gumienna-Kontecka E, Zoroddu MA (December 2017). "Ni(II) interaction with a peptide model of the human TLR4 ectodomain". Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology. 44: 151–160. doi:10.1016/j.jtemb.2017.07.006. PMID 28965571.
  35. ^ Husebye H, Aune MH, Stenvik J, Samstad E, Skjeldal F, Halaas O, et al. (October 2010). "The Rab11a GTPase controls Toll-like receptor 4-induced activation of interferon regulatory factor-3 on phagosomes". Immunity. 33 (4): 583–596. doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2010.09.010. PMC 10733841. PMID 20933442.
  36. ^ Schröder NW, Schumann RR (March 2005). "Single nucleotide polymorphisms of Toll-like receptors and susceptibility to infectious disease". The Lancet. Infectious Diseases. 5 (3): 156–164. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(05)01308-3. PMID 15766650.
  37. ^ Lorenz E, Mira JP, Frees KL, Schwartz DA (May 2002). "Relevance of mutations in the TLR4 receptor in patients with gram-negative septic shock". Archives of Internal Medicine. 162 (9): 1028–1032. doi:10.1001/archinte.162.9.1028. PMID 11996613.
  38. ^ Nachtigall I, Tamarkin A, Tafelski S, Weimann A, Rothbart A, Heim S, et al. (February 2014). "Polymorphisms of the toll-like receptor 2 and 4 genes are associated with faster progression and a more severe course of sepsis in critically ill patients". The Journal of International Medical Research. 42 (1): 93–110. doi:10.1177/0300060513504358. PMID 24366499. S2CID 25824309.
  39. ^ Lerouge I, Vanderleyden J (March 2002). "O-antigen structural variation: mechanisms and possible roles in animal/plant-microbe interactions". FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 26 (1): 17–47. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2002.tb00597.x. PMID 12007641.
  40. ^ a b Ciesielska A, Matyjek M, Kwiatkowska K (February 2021). "TLR4 and CD14 trafficking and its influence on LPS-induced pro-inflammatory signaling". Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 78 (4): 1233–1261. doi:10.1007/s00018-020-03656-y. PMC 7904555. PMID 33057840.
  41. ^ Icer MA, Yıldıran H (February 2021). "Effects of fetuin-A with diverse functions and multiple mechanisms on human health". Clinical Biochemistry. 88: 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2020.11.004. PMID 33245873. S2CID 227190375.
  42. ^ Bekeredjian-Ding I, Foermer S, Kirschning CJ, Parcina M, Heeg K (2012-01-04). "Poke weed mitogen requires Toll-like receptor ligands for proliferative activity in human and murine B lymphocytes". PLOS ONE. 7 (1): e29806. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...729806B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0029806. PMC 3251602. PMID 22238657.
  43. ^ a b Mockenhaupt FP, Cramer JP, Hamann L, Stegemann MS, Eckert J, Oh NR, et al. (January 2006). "Toll-like receptor (TLR) polymorphisms in African children: Common TLR-4 variants predispose to severe malaria". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103 (1): 177–182. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103..177M. doi:10.1073/pnas.0506803102. PMC 1324982. PMID 16371473.
  44. ^ Van der Graaf CA, Netea MG, Morré SA, Den Heijer M, Verweij PE, Van der Meer JW, Kullberg BJ (March 2006). "Toll-like receptor 4 Asp299Gly/Thr399Ile polymorphisms are a risk factor for Candida bloodstream infection". European Cytokine Network. 17 (1): 29–34. PMID 16613760.
  45. ^ Eyking A, Ey B, Rünzi M, Roig AI, Reis H, Schmid KW, et al. (December 2011). "Toll-like receptor 4 variant D299G induces features of neoplastic progression in Caco-2 intestinal cells and is associated with advanced human colon cancer". Gastroenterology. 141 (6): 2154–2165. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2011.08.043. PMC 3268964. PMID 21920464.
  46. ^ Liu J, Yang AR, Kelly T, Puche A, Esoga C, June HL, et al. (March 2011). "Binge alcohol drinking is associated with GABAA alpha2-regulated Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) expression in the central amygdala". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 108 (11): 4465–4470. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.4465L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1019020108. PMC 3060224. PMID 21368176.
  47. ^ Blanco AM, Vallés SL, Pascual M, Guerri C (November 2005). "Involvement of TLR4/type I IL-1 receptor signaling in the induction of inflammatory mediators and cell death induced by ethanol in cultured astrocytes". Journal of Immunology. 175 (10): 6893–6899. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.175.10.6893. PMID 16272348. S2CID 10682750.
  48. ^ Hakim F, Wang Y, Zhang SX, Zheng J, Yolcu ES, Carreras A, et al. (March 2014). "Fragmented sleep accelerates tumor growth and progression through recruitment of tumor-associated macrophages and TLR4 signaling". Cancer Research. 74 (5): 1329–1337. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-13-3014. PMC 4247537. PMID 24448240.
  49. ^ Shavit Y, Wolf G, Goshen I, Livshits D, Yirmiya R (May 2005). "Interleukin-1 antagonizes morphine analgesia and underlies morphine tolerance". Pain. 115 (1–2): 50–59. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2005.02.003. PMID 15836969. S2CID 7286123.
  50. ^ Mohan S, Davis RL, DeSilva U, Stevens CW (October 2010). "Dual regulation of mu opioid receptors in SK-N-SH neuroblastoma cells by morphine and interleukin-1β: evidence for opioid-immune crosstalk". Journal of Neuroimmunology. 227 (1–2): 26–34. doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2010.06.007. PMC 2942958. PMID 20615556.
  51. ^ Komatsu T, Sakurada S, Katsuyama S, Sanai K, Sakurada T (2009). Mechanism of allodynia evoked by intrathecal morphine-3-glucuronide in mice. International Review of Neurobiology. Vol. 85. pp. 207–19. doi:10.1016/S0074-7742(09)85016-2. ISBN 978-0-12-374893-5. PMID 19607972.
  52. ^ a b Lewis SS, Hutchinson MR, Rezvani N, Loram LC, Zhang Y, Maier SF, et al. (January 2010). "Evidence that intrathecal morphine-3-glucuronide may cause pain enhancement via toll-like receptor 4/MD-2 and interleukin-1beta". Neuroscience. 165 (2): 569–583. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.10.011. PMC 2795035. PMID 19833175.
  53. ^ Shen CH, Tsai RY, Shih MS, Lin SL, Tai YH, Chien CC, Wong CS (February 2011). "Etanercept restores the antinociceptive effect of morphine and suppresses spinal neuroinflammation in morphine-tolerant rats". Anesthesia and Analgesia. 112 (2): 454–459. doi:10.1213/ANE.0b013e3182025b15. PMID 21081778. S2CID 12295407.
  54. ^ Hook MA, Washburn SN, Moreno G, Woller SA, Puga D, Lee KH, Grau JW (February 2011). "An IL-1 receptor antagonist blocks a morphine-induced attenuation of locomotor recovery after spinal cord injury". Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 25 (2): 349–359. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2010.10.018. PMC 3025088. PMID 20974246.
  55. ^ a b Watkins LR, Hutchinson MR, Rice KC, Maier SF (November 2009). "The "toll" of opioid-induced glial activation: improving the clinical efficacy of opioids by targeting glia". Trends in Pharmacological Sciences. 30 (11): 581–591. doi:10.1016/j.tips.2009.08.002. PMC 2783351. PMID 19762094.
  56. ^ a b c Hutchinson MR, Zhang Y, Brown K, Coats BD, Shridhar M, Sholar PW, et al. (July 2008). "Non-stereoselective reversal of neuropathic pain by naloxone and naltrexone: involvement of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)". The European Journal of Neuroscience. 28 (1): 20–29. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2008.06321.x. PMC 2588470. PMID 18662331.
  57. ^ Hutchinson MR, Coats BD, Lewis SS, Zhang Y, Sprunger DB, Rezvani N, et al. (November 2008). "Proinflammatory cytokines oppose opioid-induced acute and chronic analgesia". Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 22 (8): 1178–1189. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2008.05.004. PMC 2783238. PMID 18599265.
  58. ^ Hutchinson MR, Lewis SS, Coats BD, Rezvani N, Zhang Y, Wieseler JL, et al. (May 2010). "Possible involvement of toll-like receptor 4/myeloid differentiation factor-2 activity of opioid inactive isomers causes spinal proinflammation and related behavioral consequences". Neuroscience. 167 (3): 880–893. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.02.011. PMC 2854318. PMID 20178837.
  59. ^ Lin SL, Tsai RY, Tai YH, Cherng CH, Wu CT, Yeh CC, Wong CS (February 2010). "Ultra-low dose naloxone upregulates interleukin-10 expression and suppresses neuroinflammation in morphine-tolerant rat spinal cords". Behavioural Brain Research. 207 (1): 30–36. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2009.09.034. PMID 19799935. S2CID 5128970.
  60. ^ "Neuroscience: Making morphine work better". Nature. 484 (7395): 419. 26 April 2012. Bibcode:2012Natur.484Q.419.. doi:10.1038/484419a. S2CID 52805136.
  61. ^ Drahl C (22 August 2012). "Small Molecules Target Toll-Like Receptors". Chemical & Engineering News.
  62. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Hutchinson MR, Zhang Y, Shridhar M, Evans JH, Buchanan MM, Zhao TX, et al. (January 2010). "Evidence that opioids may have toll-like receptor 4 and MD-2 effects". Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 24 (1): 83–95. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2009.08.004. PMC 2788078. PMID 19679181.
  63. ^ a b c d e f g Hutchinson MR, Loram LC, Zhang Y, Shridhar M, Rezvani N, Berkelhammer D, et al. (June 2010). "Evidence that tricyclic small molecules may possess toll-like receptor and myeloid differentiation protein 2 activity". Neuroscience. 168 (2): 551–563. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.03.067. PMC 2872682. PMID 20381591.
  64. ^ Pascual M, Baliño P, Alfonso-Loeches S, Aragón CM, Guerri C (June 2011). "Impact of TLR4 on behavioral and cognitive dysfunctions associated with alcohol-induced neuroinflammatory damage". Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 25 (Suppl 1): S80–S91. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2011.02.012. PMID 21352907. S2CID 205861788.
  65. ^ Kelley KW, Dantzer R (June 2011). "Alcoholism and inflammation: neuroimmunology of behavioral and mood disorders". Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 25 (Suppl 1): S13–S20. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2010.12.013. PMC 4068736. PMID 21193024.
  66. ^ Mallet JF, Graham É, Ritz BW, Homma K, Matar C (2016-02-01). "Active Hexose Correlated Compound (AHCC) promotes an intestinal immune response in BALB/c mice and in primary intestinal epithelial cell culture involving toll-like receptors TLR-2 and TLR-4". European Journal of Nutrition. 55 (1): 139–146. doi:10.1007/s00394-015-0832-2. ISSN 1436-6215.
  67. ^ Harris SA, Solomon KR (July 1992). "Percutaneous penetration of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and 2,4-D dimethylamine salt in human volunteers". Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. 36 (3): 233–240. doi:10.1080/15287399209531634. PMID 1629934.
  68. ^ Monari C, Bistoni F, Casadevall A, Pericolini E, Pietrella D, Kozel TR, Vecchiarelli A (January 2005). "Glucuronoxylomannan, a microbial compound, regulates expression of costimulatory molecules and production of cytokines in macrophages". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 191 (1): 127–137. doi:10.1086/426511. PMID 15593014.
  69. ^ Wu HE, Hong JS, Tseng LF (October 2007). "Stereoselective action of (+)-morphine over (-)-morphine in attenuating the (-)-morphine-produced antinociception via the naloxone-sensitive sigma receptor in the mouse". European Journal of Pharmacology. 571 (2–3): 145–151. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.06.012. PMC 2080825. PMID 17617400.
  70. ^ Romerio A, Peri F (2020). "Increasing the Chemical Variety of Small-Molecule-Based TLR4 Modulators: An Overview". Frontiers in Immunology. 11: 1210. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.01210. PMC 7381287. PMID 32765484.
  71. ^ Chen F, Zou L, Williams B, Chao W (November 2021). "Targeting Toll-Like Receptors in Sepsis: From Bench to Clinical Trials". Antioxidants & Redox Signaling. 35 (15): 1324–1339. doi:10.1089/ars.2021.0005. PMC 8817700. PMID 33588628.
  72. ^ Jia ZJ, Wu FX, Huang QH, Liu JM (April 2012). "[Toll-like receptor 4: the potential therapeutic target for neuropathic pain]". Zhongguo Yi Xue Ke Xue Yuan Xue Bao. Acta Academiae Medicinae Sinicae. 34 (2): 168–173. doi:10.3881/j.issn.1000-503X.2012.02.013. PMID 22776604.
  73. ^ Lan X, Han X, Li Q, Li Q, Gao Y, Cheng T, et al. (March 2017). "Pinocembrin protects hemorrhagic brain primarily by inhibiting toll-like receptor 4 and reducing M1 phenotype microglia". Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 61: 326–339. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2016.12.012. PMC 5453178. PMID 28007523.
  74. ^ Kaieda A, Takahashi M, Fukuda H, Okamoto R, Morimoto S, Gotoh M, et al. (December 2019). "Structure-Based Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Imidazo[4,5-b]Pyridin-2-one-Based p38 MAP Kinase Inhibitors: Part 2". ChemMedChem. 14 (24): 2093–2101. doi:10.1002/cmdc.201900373. PMID 31697454. S2CID 207951964.
  75. ^ Speer EM, Dowling DJ, Ozog LS, Xu J, Yang J, Kennady G, Levy O (May 2017). "Pentoxifylline inhibits TLR- and inflammasome-mediated in vitro inflammatory cytokine production in human blood with greater efficacy and potency in newborns". Pediatric Research. 81 (5): 806–816. doi:10.1038/pr.2017.6. PMID 28072760. S2CID 47210724.
  76. ^ Schüller SS, Wisgrill L, Herndl E, Spittler A, Förster-Waldl E, Sadeghi K, et al. (August 2017). "Pentoxifylline modulates LPS-induced hyperinflammation in monocytes of preterm infants in vitro". Pediatric Research. 82 (2): 215–225. doi:10.1038/pr.2017.41. PMID 28288151. S2CID 24897100.
  77. ^ Neal MD, Jia H, Eyer B, Good M, Guerriero CJ, Sodhi CP, et al. (2013). "Discovery and validation of a new class of small molecule Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) inhibitors". PLOS ONE. 8 (6): e65779. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...865779N. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0065779. PMC 3680486. PMID 23776545.
  78. ^ Impellizzeri D, Campolo M, Di Paola R, Bruschetta G, de Stefano D, Esposito E, Cuzzocrea S (2015). "Ultramicronized palmitoylethanolamide reduces inflammation an a Th1-mediated model of colitis". European Journal of Inflammation. 13: 14–31. doi:10.1177/1721727X15575869. S2CID 79398556.

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Toll-like_receptor_4&oldid=1206887296"