Philippines: Difference between revisions
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On July 4, 1946, the Philippines was officially recognized by the [[United States]] as an independent nation through the [[Treaty of Manila (1946)|Treaty of Manila]], during the presidency of [[Manuel Roxas]].<ref name="Treaty of Manila">{{cite book|author=Philippines|title=Treaty of General Relations and Protocol with the Republic of the Philippines: Message from the President of the United States Transmitting the Treaty of General Relations and Protocol Between the United States of America and the Republic of the Philippines, Signed at Manila on July 4, 1946|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fyDEHAAACAAJ|year=1946|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office}}</ref> Efforts to end the [[Hukbalahap Rebellion]] began during [[Elpidio Quirino]]'s term,<ref>Molina, Antonio. The Philippines: Through the centuries. Manila: University of Sto. Tomas Cooperative, 1961. Print.{{Full citation needed|date=July 2020}}</ref> while a [[Mutual Defense Treaty (United States–Philippines)|defense treaty with the US]] was signed,<ref>https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1951/08/30/mutual-defense-treaty-between-the-republic-of-the-philippines-and-the-united-states-of-america-august-30-1951/</ref> The Philippines participated in the [[Korean War]] in favor of the [[South Korea|South]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/225235/filipino-soldiers-story-of-korean-war-valor-redux|title=Filipino soldiers' story of Korean War: Valor redux|first=Art|last=Villasanta|date=July 8, 2012|website=INQUIRER.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mb.com.ph/2020/09/20/south-korea-honors-filipino-soldiers-who-fought-in-korean-war/|title=South Korea honors Filipino soldiers who fought in Korean War|date=September 20, 2020}}</ref> [[Ramon Magsaysay]]'s presidency decimated the Hukbalahap rebellion.<ref>Jeff Goodwin, [https://archive.org/details/nootherwayout00jeff/page/118 <!-- quote=huk rebellion. --> No Other Way Out], Cambridge University Press, 2001, p.119, {{ISBN|0-521-62948-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-62948-5}}</ref> [[Carlos P. Garcia]] initiated the [[Filipino First policy|Filipino First Policy]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Abinales |first1=P. N. |last2=Amoroso |first2=Donna J. |title=State and Society in the Philippines |year=2005 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-1024-1 |page=182 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&pg=PA182 |accessdate=1 September 2020 |language=en}}</ref>, continued by [[Diosdado Macapagal]], with Independence Day moved from July 4 to June 12,<ref name=bibingka-jun12>{{cite web|url=http://www.bibingka.com/phg/documents/jun12.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970713004232/http://www.bibingka.com/phg/documents/jun12.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 13, 1997 |title=Proclamation No. 28 Declaring June 12 as Philippine Independence Day |last=Macapagal |first=Diosdado |publisher=Philippine History Group of Los Angeles |accessdate=November 11, 2009 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.positivenewsmedia.net/am2/publish/Article_Features_22/President_Diosdado_Macapagal_set_RP_Independence_D_5939.shtml|title=President Diosdado Macapagal set RP Independence Day on June 12|author=Manuel S. Satorre Jr.|publisher=positivenewsmedia.net|accessdate=December 10, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724020320/http://www.positivenewsmedia.net/am2/publish/Article_Features_22/President_Diosdado_Macapagal_set_RP_Independence_D_5939.shtml|archive-date=July 24, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> while the country pursued [[North Borneo dispute|a claim]] on eastern [[North Borneo]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Developing Regional Minorities in Asia|url=http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/library/connections.pdf|website=Sabri Zain|accessdate=January 15, 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415034823/http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/library/connections.pdf |archivedate=April 15, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Weatherbee|first=Donald E.|author2=Ralf Emmers |author3=Mari Pangestu |author4=Leonard C. Sebastian |title=International relations in Southeast Asia|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2005|pages=68–69|isbn=978-0-7425-2842-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wqEC4jHl9wC&pg=PA68}}</ref> |
On July 4, 1946, the Philippines was officially recognized by the [[United States]] as an independent nation through the [[Treaty of Manila (1946)|Treaty of Manila]], during the presidency of [[Manuel Roxas]].<ref name="Treaty of Manila">{{cite book|author=Philippines|title=Treaty of General Relations and Protocol with the Republic of the Philippines: Message from the President of the United States Transmitting the Treaty of General Relations and Protocol Between the United States of America and the Republic of the Philippines, Signed at Manila on July 4, 1946|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fyDEHAAACAAJ|year=1946|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office}}</ref> Efforts to end the [[Hukbalahap Rebellion]] began during [[Elpidio Quirino]]'s term,<ref>Molina, Antonio. The Philippines: Through the centuries. Manila: University of Sto. Tomas Cooperative, 1961. Print.{{Full citation needed|date=July 2020}}</ref> while a [[Mutual Defense Treaty (United States–Philippines)|defense treaty with the US]] was signed,<ref>https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1951/08/30/mutual-defense-treaty-between-the-republic-of-the-philippines-and-the-united-states-of-america-august-30-1951/</ref> The Philippines participated in the [[Korean War]] in favor of the [[South Korea|South]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/225235/filipino-soldiers-story-of-korean-war-valor-redux|title=Filipino soldiers' story of Korean War: Valor redux|first=Art|last=Villasanta|date=July 8, 2012|website=INQUIRER.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mb.com.ph/2020/09/20/south-korea-honors-filipino-soldiers-who-fought-in-korean-war/|title=South Korea honors Filipino soldiers who fought in Korean War|date=September 20, 2020}}</ref> [[Ramon Magsaysay]]'s presidency decimated the Hukbalahap rebellion.<ref>Jeff Goodwin, [https://archive.org/details/nootherwayout00jeff/page/118 <!-- quote=huk rebellion. --> No Other Way Out], Cambridge University Press, 2001, p.119, {{ISBN|0-521-62948-9}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-62948-5}}</ref> [[Carlos P. Garcia]] initiated the [[Filipino First policy|Filipino First Policy]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Abinales |first1=P. N. |last2=Amoroso |first2=Donna J. |title=State and Society in the Philippines |year=2005 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-1024-1 |page=182 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&pg=PA182 |accessdate=1 September 2020 |language=en}}</ref>, continued by [[Diosdado Macapagal]], with Independence Day moved from July 4 to June 12,<ref name=bibingka-jun12>{{cite web|url=http://www.bibingka.com/phg/documents/jun12.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970713004232/http://www.bibingka.com/phg/documents/jun12.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 13, 1997 |title=Proclamation No. 28 Declaring June 12 as Philippine Independence Day |last=Macapagal |first=Diosdado |publisher=Philippine History Group of Los Angeles |accessdate=November 11, 2009 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.positivenewsmedia.net/am2/publish/Article_Features_22/President_Diosdado_Macapagal_set_RP_Independence_D_5939.shtml|title=President Diosdado Macapagal set RP Independence Day on June 12|author=Manuel S. Satorre Jr.|publisher=positivenewsmedia.net|accessdate=December 10, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724020320/http://www.positivenewsmedia.net/am2/publish/Article_Features_22/President_Diosdado_Macapagal_set_RP_Independence_D_5939.shtml|archive-date=July 24, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> while the country pursued [[North Borneo dispute|a claim]] on eastern [[North Borneo]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Developing Regional Minorities in Asia|url=http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/library/connections.pdf|website=Sabri Zain|accessdate=January 15, 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415034823/http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/library/connections.pdf |archivedate=April 15, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Weatherbee|first=Donald E.|author2=Ralf Emmers |author3=Mari Pangestu |author4=Leonard C. Sebastian |title=International relations in Southeast Asia|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2005|pages=68–69|isbn=978-0-7425-2842-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wqEC4jHl9wC&pg=PA68}}</ref> |
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In 1965, [[Ferdinand Marcos]] initiated infrastructure projects<ref>{{cite book |last1=Timberman |first1=David G. |title=A Changeless Land: Continuity and Change in Philippine Politics |year=1991 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian |isbn=978-981-3035-86-7 |page=58 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NkBO2RhI4NUC&pg=PA58 |accessdate=1 September 2020 |language=en}}</ref>, together with his wife [[Imelda Marcos|Imelda]], through corrupt means, embezzling billions of dollars in public funds,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-21022457|title=What happened to the Marcos fortune?|publisher=BBC News|date=January 25, 2013|first=Kate|last=McGeown}}{{Full citation needed|date=July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/11/09/imelda-marcos-sentenced-42-years-corruption/|title=Imelda Marcos sentenced to 42 years for £154m fraud|date=November 9, 2018|via=www.telegraph.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rappler.com/voices/thought-leaders/analysis-just-how-bad-was-corruption-marcos-years|title=[ANALYSIS] Just how bad was corruption during the Marcos years?|website=Rappler}}</ref> while his [[genocide|genocidal regime]]<ref name="auto6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/nation/675312/murad-marcos-regime-rsquo-s-genocidal-war-vs-muslims-drove-us-to-armed-struggle/story/|title=Murad: Marcos regime’s genocidal war vs. Muslims drove us to armed struggle|website=GMA News Online}}</ref><ref name="auto6"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/fact-check/false-no-massacres-during-martial-law|title=FALSE: 'No massacres' during Martial Law|website=Rappler}}</ref> triggered the Islamic [[Moro conflict]].<ref name="Timeline">{{cite web |url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/236761/news/specialreports/fighting-and-talking-a-mindanao-conflict-timeline |title=Fighting and talking: A Mindanao conflict timeline |date=October 27, 2011 |publisher=[[GMA News and Public Affairs]] |accessdate=May 5, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313034932/http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/236761/news/specialreports/fighting-and-talking-a-mindanao-conflict-timeline |archive-date=March 13, 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="sfof">{{cite web|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1968/03/28/jabidah-special-forces-of-evil-by-senator-benigno-s-aquino-jr/|title=Jabidah! Special Forces of Evil?|first=Benigno S.|last=Aquino Jr.|work=Delivered at the Legislative Building, Manila, on 28 March 1968|publisher=[[Government of the Philippines]]|date=March 28, 1968}}</ref> He declared [[martial law in the Philippines|martial law]] on September 21, 1972,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/11/08/16/marcos-a-us-backed-dictator-with-charisma|title=Marcos: a US-backed dictator with charisma|first=Mynardo Macaraig, Agence|last=France-Presse|date=November 8, 2016|website=ABS-CBN News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Declaration of Martial Law |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/declaration-of-martial-law/ |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines |accessdate=1 September 2020 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708065018/http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/declaration-of-martial-law/ |archivedate=3 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Problems of Communism |date=1975 |publisher=Documentary Studies Section, International Information Administration |page=59 |edition=March–April 1975; Vol. XXIV |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6XBafuPyHq8C&pg=PA59 |accessdate=1 September 2020 |language=en}}</ref> which led to |
In 1965, [[Ferdinand Marcos]] initiated infrastructure projects<ref>{{cite book |last1=Timberman |first1=David G. |title=A Changeless Land: Continuity and Change in Philippine Politics |year=1991 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian |isbn=978-981-3035-86-7 |page=58 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NkBO2RhI4NUC&pg=PA58 |accessdate=1 September 2020 |language=en}}</ref>, together with his wife [[Imelda Marcos|Imelda]], through corrupt means, embezzling billions of dollars in public funds,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-21022457|title=What happened to the Marcos fortune?|publisher=BBC News|date=January 25, 2013|first=Kate|last=McGeown}}{{Full citation needed|date=July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/11/09/imelda-marcos-sentenced-42-years-corruption/|title=Imelda Marcos sentenced to 42 years for £154m fraud|date=November 9, 2018|via=www.telegraph.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rappler.com/voices/thought-leaders/analysis-just-how-bad-was-corruption-marcos-years|title=[ANALYSIS] Just how bad was corruption during the Marcos years?|website=Rappler}}</ref> while his [[genocide|genocidal regime]]<ref name="auto6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/nation/675312/murad-marcos-regime-rsquo-s-genocidal-war-vs-muslims-drove-us-to-armed-struggle/story/|title=Murad: Marcos regime’s genocidal war vs. Muslims drove us to armed struggle|website=GMA News Online}}</ref><ref name="auto6"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/fact-check/false-no-massacres-during-martial-law|title=FALSE: 'No massacres' during Martial Law|website=Rappler}}</ref> triggered the Islamic [[Moro conflict]].<ref name="Timeline">{{cite web |url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/236761/news/specialreports/fighting-and-talking-a-mindanao-conflict-timeline |title=Fighting and talking: A Mindanao conflict timeline |date=October 27, 2011 |publisher=[[GMA News and Public Affairs]] |accessdate=May 5, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313034932/http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/236761/news/specialreports/fighting-and-talking-a-mindanao-conflict-timeline |archive-date=March 13, 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="sfof">{{cite web|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1968/03/28/jabidah-special-forces-of-evil-by-senator-benigno-s-aquino-jr/|title=Jabidah! Special Forces of Evil?|first=Benigno S.|last=Aquino Jr.|work=Delivered at the Legislative Building, Manila, on 28 March 1968|publisher=[[Government of the Philippines]]|date=March 28, 1968}}</ref> He declared [[martial law in the Philippines|martial law]] on September 21, 1972,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/11/08/16/marcos-a-us-backed-dictator-with-charisma|title=Marcos: a US-backed dictator with charisma|first=Mynardo Macaraig, Agence|last=France-Presse|date=November 8, 2016|website=ABS-CBN News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Declaration of Martial Law |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/declaration-of-martial-law/ |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines |accessdate=1 September 2020 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708065018/http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/declaration-of-martial-law/ |archivedate=3 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Problems of Communism |date=1975 |publisher=Documentary Studies Section, International Information Administration |page=59 |edition=March–April 1975; Vol. XXIV |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6XBafuPyHq8C&pg=PA59 |accessdate=1 September 2020 |language=en}}</ref> which led to political repression, censorship, and [[Human rights abuses of the Marcos dictatorship|human rights violations]],<ref>{{cite book|title=To Islands Far Away: the Story of the Thomasites and Their Journey to the Philippines|date=2001|publisher=US Embassy|location=Manila}}{{Full citation needed|date=July 2020}}</ref> which included [[List of torture methods used by the Marcos dictatorship|various methods of torture]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rappler.com/nation/torture-martial-law-marcos-regime|title=Worse than death: Torture methods during martial law|website=Rappler}}</ref> while the economy became the [[sick man of Asia]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rappler.com/voices/imho/marcos-economy-golden-age-philippines|title=Marcos years marked 'golden age' of PH economy? Look at the data|website=Rappler}}</ref> as Chinese-initiated racism<ref name=":China2016">{{Cite report|last1=Huang|first1=Echo|last2=Stegar|first2=Isabella|year=2016|title=A gullible nation of maids and banana sellers: How many Chinese see the Philippines|url=https://qz.com/800826/a-childlike-nation-of-maids-and-banana-sellers-how-chinese-see-the-philippines/|journal=|volume=|pages=|via=Quartz News}}</ref> and Filipino communist support increased.<ref name="AcEh">{{cite web|url=http://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/149|title=New People's Army|date=August 22, 2012|publisher=Stanford University|accessdate=February 9, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171230081441/http://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/149|archive-date=December 30, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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The regime has been described as a [[conjugal dictatorship]]<ref>Mijares, Primitivo. ''The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos and Imelda Marcos'', Union Square Publishing, Manila, 1976. {{ISBN|1-141-12147-6}}.</ref> with an [[edifice complex]].<ref>Lico, Gerard (2003). Edifice Complex: Power, Myth, and Marcos State Architecture. University of Hawaii Press.</ref> |
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On August 21, 1983, opposition leader [[Benigno Aquino Jr.]], was [[Assassination of Benigno Aquino Jr.|assassinated]] at [[Manila International Airport]], resulting to [[1986 Philippine presidential election|snap elections]].<ref name=Chandler /> The results were widely regarded as fraudulent,<ref name=":7">{{Cite report|last1=Atwood|first1=J. Brian|last2=Schuette|first2=Keith E.|year=|title=A Path to Democratic Renewal|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK494.pdf|journal=|volume=|pages=350|via=National Democratic Institute for International Affairs and National Republican Institute for International Affairs}}</ref> which resulted to the 1986 [[People Power Revolution]],<ref name="Gandhi">{{Citation |last=Kumar |first=Ravindra |publication-date=|title=Mahatma Gandhi at the Close of Twentieth Century|location= |publisher=Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. |isbn=978-81-261-1736-9 |page=168 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lTNpstqGlAMC&q=EDSA+Revolution&pg=PA168 |accessdate= December 2, 2007 |year=2004}}<!--REFORMAT SOURCE--></ref> which forced Marcos and his allies to [[Filipinos in Hawaii#After 1965|flee to Hawaii]] and [[Corazon Aquino]] became president.<ref name=Chandler>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jzUz9lKn6PEC&pg=PA431|title=In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History|author1=Chandler, David P. |author2=David Joel Steinberg |lastauthoramp=yes |edition=Revised 2nd|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=1987|pages=431–442|isbn=978-0-8248-1110-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stuartxchange.org/DayFour.html |title=The Original People Power Revolution |accessdate=February 28, 2008 |publisher=Quartet |page=77}}</ref> Throughout the Marcos [[dictatorship]], the nation's foreign debt skyrocketed from $599 million in 1966 to $26.7 billion in 1986, with debt payment being reachable only by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/774774/well-pay-marcos-debt-until-2025|title='We'll pay Marcos debt until 2025'|first=Philippine Daily|last=Inquirer|date=March 18, 2016|website=INQUIRER.net}}</ref> |
On August 21, 1983, opposition leader [[Benigno Aquino Jr.]], was [[Assassination of Benigno Aquino Jr.|assassinated]] at [[Manila International Airport]], resulting to [[1986 Philippine presidential election|snap elections]].<ref name=Chandler /> The results were widely regarded as fraudulent,<ref name=":7">{{Cite report|last1=Atwood|first1=J. Brian|last2=Schuette|first2=Keith E.|year=|title=A Path to Democratic Renewal|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK494.pdf|journal=|volume=|pages=350|via=National Democratic Institute for International Affairs and National Republican Institute for International Affairs}}</ref> which resulted to the 1986 [[People Power Revolution]],<ref name="Gandhi">{{Citation |last=Kumar |first=Ravindra |publication-date=|title=Mahatma Gandhi at the Close of Twentieth Century|location= |publisher=Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. |isbn=978-81-261-1736-9 |page=168 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lTNpstqGlAMC&q=EDSA+Revolution&pg=PA168 |accessdate= December 2, 2007 |year=2004}}<!--REFORMAT SOURCE--></ref> which forced Marcos and his allies to [[Filipinos in Hawaii#After 1965|flee to Hawaii]] and [[Corazon Aquino]] became president.<ref name=Chandler>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jzUz9lKn6PEC&pg=PA431|title=In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History|author1=Chandler, David P. |author2=David Joel Steinberg |lastauthoramp=yes |edition=Revised 2nd|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=1987|pages=431–442|isbn=978-0-8248-1110-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stuartxchange.org/DayFour.html |title=The Original People Power Revolution |accessdate=February 28, 2008 |publisher=Quartet |page=77}}</ref> Throughout the Marcos [[dictatorship]], the nation's foreign debt skyrocketed from $599 million in 1966 to $26.7 billion in 1986, with debt payment being reachable only by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/774774/well-pay-marcos-debt-until-2025|title='We'll pay Marcos debt until 2025'|first=Philippine Daily|last=Inquirer|date=March 18, 2016|website=INQUIRER.net}}</ref> |
Revision as of 11:05, 5 October 2020
Republic of the Philippines Republika ng Pilipinas (Filipino) | |
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Motto: "Maka-Diyos, Maka-Tao, Makakalikasan at Makabansa"[1] "For God, People, Nature and Country" | |
Anthem: Lupang Hinirang (English: "Chosen Land") | |
Great Seal Dakilang Sagisag ng Pilipinas (Filipino) Great Seal of the Philippines | |
Capital | Manilaa 14°35′N 120°58′E / 14.583°N 120.967°E |
Largest city | Quezon City 14°38′N 121°02′E / 14.633°N 121.033°E |
Official languages | |
Recognized regional languages | |
Protected auxiliary languages | |
Other recognized languages | Filipino Sign Language |
Ethnic groups (2010[5]) | |
Religion (2010) |
|
Demonym(s) | Filipino (masculine or neutral) Filipina (feminine) Philippine (colloquial feminine) |
Government | Unitary presidential constitutional republic |
Rodrigo Duterte | |
Maria Leonor Robredo | |
Vicente Sotto III | |
Alan Peter Cayetano | |
Diosdado Peralta | |
Legislature | Congress |
Senate | |
House of Representatives | |
Formation | |
~ 900 CE | |
April 27, 1565 | |
June 12, 1898 | |
July 4, 1946 | |
February 2, 1987 | |
Area | |
• Total | 300,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi) (72nd) |
• Water (%) | 0.61[7] (inland waters) |
• Land | 298,170 |
Population | |
• 2020 estimate | 109,048,269[8] |
• 2015 census | 100,981,437[9][10] (13th) |
• Density | 336/km2 (870.2/sq mi) (47th) |
GDP (PPP) | 2020 estimate |
• Total | $1.110 trillion[11] (27th) |
• Per capita | $10,094[11] (112th (2019)) |
GDP (nominal) | 2020 estimate |
• Total | $383 billion[11] (32nd) |
• Per capita | $3,484[11] (125th (2019)) |
Gini (2015) | ![]() medium inequality (44th) |
HDI (2018) | ![]() high (106th) |
Currency | Philippine peso (₱) (PHP) |
Time zone | UTC+8 (PST) |
Date format |
|
Drives on | right,[14] formerly left before 1947/1948 |
Calling code | +63 |
ISO 3166 code | PH |
Internet TLD | .ph |
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The Philippines (/ˈfɪləpiːnz/ ; Filipino: Pilipinas [ˌpɪlɪˈpinɐs] or Filipinas [fɪlɪˈpinɐs]), officially the Republic of the Philippines (Filipino: Republika ng Pilipinas),[a] is an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. Situated in the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of about 7,641 islands that are broadly categorized under three main geographical divisions from north to south: Luzon, Visayas, Mindanao. The capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both within the single urban area of Metro Manila.[17] Bounded by the South China Sea on the west, the Philippine Sea on the east and the Celebes Sea on the southwest, the Philippines shares maritime borders with Taiwan to the north, Japan to the northeast, Palau to the east, Indonesia to the south, Malaysia and Brunei to the southwest, Vietnam to the west, and China to the northwest.
The Philippines' position as an island country on the Pacific Ring of Fire and close to the equator makes the country prone to earthquakes and typhoons. The country has a variety of natural resources and a globally significant level of biodiversity. The Philippines has an area of around 300,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi) with a population of around 109 million people.[9] As of 2020[update], it is the 8th-most populated country in Asia and the 13th-most populated country in the world. Multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. Negritos, some of the archipelago's earliest inhabitants, were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples who established polities ruled by Datus, Lakans, Rajahs and Sultans.[18]
The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer leading a fleet for the Spanish, marked the beginning of Hispanic colonialization. In 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. Starting from 1565, Hispanic settlement of the archipelago was established via expeditions organized from New Spain (Mexico) and the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. During this time, Catholicism became the dominant religion, and Manila became the western hub of trans-Pacific trade. In 1896 the Philippine Revolution began, which then became entwined with the 1898 Spanish–American War. Spain ceded the territory to the United States, while Filipino rebels declared the First Philippine Republic. The ensuing Philippine–American War ended with the United States establishing control over the territory, which they maintained until the Japanese invasion of the islands during World War II. Following liberation, the Philippines became an independent country in 1946. Since then, the unitary sovereign state has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by the People Power Revolution.
The Philippines is a founding member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, and the East Asia Summit. The Philippines is considered to be an emerging market and a newly industrialized country, which has an economy transitioning from being based on agriculture to being based more on services and manufacturing.
Etymology
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Philip_II_portrait_by_Titian.jpg/170px-Philip_II_portrait_by_Titian.jpg)
Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte and Samar, "Felipinas" after Philip II of Spain, then the Prince of Asturias. Eventually the name "Las Islas Filipinas" would be used to cover the archipelago's Spanish possessions.[19] Before Spanish rule was established, other names such as Islas del Poniente (Islands of the West) and Magellan's name for the islands, San Lázaro, were also used by the Spanish to refer to islands in the region.[20][21][22][23]
During the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the period of the Spanish–American War (1898) and the Philippine–American War (1899–1902) until the Commonwealth period (1935–1946), American colonial authorities referred to the country as the Philippine Islands, a translation of the Spanish name.[24] The full title of the Republic of the Philippines was included in the 1935 constitution as the name of the future independent state.[25] There have been attempts to change the name of the country to break away from the impact of past colonialization,[26] where a pan-Malay word reflecting the nation’s island identity has been proposed as more appropriate, or one related to the archipelago's pre-Hispanic excellence in sailing and boat-building.[27]
History
Prehistory (pre–900)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Remains_of_a_Rhinoceros_philippinensis_found_in_Rizal%2C_Kalinga_dated_c._709%2C000_years_ago.jpg/220px-Remains_of_a_Rhinoceros_philippinensis_found_in_Rizal%2C_Kalinga_dated_c._709%2C000_years_ago.jpg)
There is evidence of early hominins living in what is now the Philippines as early as 709,000 years ago.[28] One specific early hominid species discovered in Callao Cave, Homo luzonensis, lived at least 50,000 to 67,000 years ago.[29][30] The oldest modern human remains found on the islands are from the Tabon Caves of Palawan, U/Th-dated to 47,000 ± 11–10,000 years ago.[31] The Tabon Man is presumably a Negrito, who were among the archipelago's earliest inhabitants, descendants of the first human migrations out of Africa via the coastal route along southern Asia to the now sunken landmasses of Sundaland and Sahul.[32]
The first Austronesians reached the Philippines at around 2200 BC, settling the Batanes Islands and northern Luzon from Taiwan. From there, they rapidly spread downwards to the rest of the islands of the Philippines and Southeast Asia.[33][34] This population assimilated with the existing Negritos resulting in the modern Filipino ethnic groups which display various ratios of genetic admixture between Austronesian and Negrito groups.[35] Jade artifacts have been found dated to 2000 BC,[36][37] with the lingling-o jade items crafted in Luzon made using raw materials originating from Taiwan.[38] By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four kinds of social groups: hunter-gatherer tribes, warrior societies, highland plutocracies, and port principalities.[39]
Early states (900–1565)
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The earliest known surviving written record found in the Philippines is the Laguna Copperplate Inscription.[40] Many polities in the Philippines developed substantial trade contacts and/or military alliances with other polities in East, Southeast, and South Asia,[41][42][43][44][45] notably Japan,[46] Taiwan,[47] China,[47] Vietnam,[48] Champa,[49][50] Brunei,[51] Malacca,[52] Timor,[53] Srivijaya,[54] Java,[55] Aceh,[56], Siam,[56] Burma,[56] and Sri Lanka.[57] Trade with China is believed to have begun during the Tang dynasty, but grew more extensive during the Song dynasty.[58] By the 2nd century CE, some Philippine polities were known to have sent trade delegations which participated in the Tributary system enforced by the Chinese imperial court, trading but without direct political or military control.[59][page needed][41] Indian cultural traits, such as linguistic terms and religious practices, began to spread within the Philippines during the 10th century, likely via the Hindu Majapahit empire.[44][60][61]By 13th century, a number of the large coastal settlements had emerged as trading centers, and became the focal point of societal changes.[60]By the 15th century, Islam was established in the Sulu Archipelago and by 1565 had reached Mindanao, the Visayas, and Luzon.[62]
Polities founded in the Philippines from the 10th–16th centuries include Maynila,[63] Tondo, Namayan, Pangasinan, Cebu, Butuan, Maguindanao, Lanao, Sulu, and Ma-i.[64] The early polities of the Philippine archipelago were typically characterized by a three-tier social structure: a nobility class, a class of "freemen", and a class of dependent debtor-bondsmen.[60][41] Among the members of the nobility class were leaders who held the political office of "Datu," which was responsible for leading autonomous social groups called "barangay" or "dulohan".[60] Whenever these barangays banded together, either to form a larger settlement[60] or a geographically looser alliance group,[41] the more senior or respected among them would be recognized as a "paramount datu",[60][39] rajah, or sultan[65] which headed the community state.[66] These states were disunited and constantly at war[67] and the archipelagic nature of the area, made it have a low population density.[68]
In 1521, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived and claimed the islands for Spain, allying himself with a native chief.[69] The natives were recorded as having a high literacy rate, knowing how to read and write in their traditional scripts, while adhering to their indigenous religions.[70] Conflicts with Lapu-Lapu resulted in Spanish defeat during the Battle of Mactan, repelling colonizers for the next four decades.[71][69]
Colonial rule (1565–1946)
Colonization began when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565.[72][73][74] In 1571, the Spanish Manila became the capital of the Spanish East Indies,[75] which also encompassed, under varying time frames, the Marianas, Carolines, Palaos and Guam,[76] as well as parts of Taiwan,[77] Sulawesi,[78] and the Moluccas.[79] The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista.[80] Colonizers invaded different local states through the divide and conquer principle.[81] The 1587 Tondo Conspiracy, which attempted to overthrow the colonizers and install the native noble Agustin de Legazpi as Monarch,[82] failed[83] leading to the downfall of numerous native nobles.[84]
Spanish rule brought most parts, not all, of the Philippines into a single unified administration.[74][85][86] From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as part of the Mexico-based Viceroyalty of New Spain, later administered from Madrid following the Mexican War of Independence.[87] Manila galleons were constructed in the Philippines.[88][89] Manila was the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade.[90]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Daru_Jambangan.jpg/220px-Daru_Jambangan.jpg)
Under Spanish rule, Catholic missionaries converted most of the lowland inhabitants who adhered to indigenous religions into colonial Christianity,[91] often done through brutal means,[92][93][94] such as genocide.[95] Colonizers founded schools, a university, hospitals, and churches,[96] by imposing an inhumane system of unpaid labor, called polo, among the natives.[97][98] Military fortresses were established to defend colonial settlements.[99] Natives were enrolled in catechism schools to convert them further into Christianity, while higher Spanish schools barred any native from enrolling.[100] Free public schooling was made only in 1863, as an aftermath of a law in Spain which affected the colony,[101] however, for more than two-thirds of Spanish colonial rule, education was not available to the natives on equal terms with the Spanish.[100] Slavery was utilized by colonizers, but later abolished by decree, although the practice still continued.[102][103][104] The population increased partly to some policies imposed by the Spanish.[105][106]
During its rule, Spain quelled various indigenous revolts[107][108][109][110][111][112] while defending against external military challenges.[113] Spanish campaigns against the natives often resulted in the confiscation of indigenous lands, destruction of farmlands, houses, food sources, and indigenous sacred shrines, and summary executions of indigenous peoples through beheading or burning at the stake and other methods.[114][115][116][117][94] Spanish influence among the Filipino upper class eventually created a system that became firmly rooted on oligarchy.[118] War against the Dutch in the 17th century, conflicts with Muslims, and Japanese-Chinese Wokou piracy nearly bankrupted the colonial treasury.[119] The rice terraces of Ifugao were built by indigenous peoples, in response to colonial encroachment.[120] Desertion rate was high among the Latino soldiers from Mexico[121] and Peru,[122][123] and the native Filipino populace, due to repeated wars, lack of wages, dislocation and near starvation. Immigration blurred the Spanish racial caste system[124][125] maintained in towns and cities.[126] The Royal Fiscal of Manila wrote to King Charles III of Spain to abandon the colony amidst difficulty in governing. The advice was opposed by Christian orders who valued the islands for religious conversion purposes.[127]
The Philippines survived on an annual subsidy provided by the Spanish Crown sent from the Americas.[128][129] Century-old fortifications did not see significant upgrades,[130] allowing British forces to occupy Manila from 1762 to 1764 during the Seven Years' War against Spain, killing and wounding hundreds of Filipinos.[131][132] British expansion was prevented by Filipino resistance,[133] until Spanish rule was restored through the 1763 Treaty of Paris.[134][135][136]
In the 19th century, Spanish Philippine ports further opened to world trade.[137][138] Many Spaniards born in the Philippines[139] and those of mixed ancestry were wealthy,[140] and an influx of Hispanic American immigrants opened up government positions traditionally held by Spaniards born in the Iberian Peninsula, while ideas of rebellion and independence began to spread. Many Latin-Americans[141] and Criollos staffed the Spanish Philippine army, but their loyalty was doubted due to the Latin American wars of independence.[142] This was compounded by a Mexican of Filipino descent, Isidoro Montes de Oca, becoming captain-general during the Mexican War of Independence.[143][144][145] To prevent a rebel union of Latinos and Filipinos, the Latino and Criollo officers stationed in the Philippines were replaced by Peninsular Spanish officers, who were less committed to the people and were often predatory, enriching themselves before returning to Spain.[146] The Spanish–Moro conflict lasted for several hundred years until a peace treaty was signed on April 30, 1851.[147][149] Colonizers interpreted the treaty as acceptance of Spanish sovereignty, while the Sulu Sultan interpreted it as a friendly treaty amongst equals, the reason why the Sultan initiated, on 22 January 1878, a "lease" or "cede" agreement with the British in regards to eastern North Borneo.[150][151]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Malolosrepublic.jpeg/220px-Malolosrepublic.jpeg)
Revolutionary sentiments were stoked in 1872 after three activist Catholic priests were accused of sedition and executed.[152][153] This would inspire a propaganda movement in Spain, organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar, José Rizal, and Mariano Ponce, lobbying for political reforms in the Philippines.[154] Racism against the natives, including the displaying of indigenous groups in a human zoo by the Spanish, stoked the cause of revolution.[155] As attempts at reform met with resistance, Andrés Bonifacio in 1892 established the militant secret society called the Katipunan, who sought independence from Spain through armed revolt.[156] On December 30, 1896, the Spanish ordered the execution of Rizal on charges of rebellion. This radicalized many who had previously been loyal to Spain.[154]
The Katipunan started the Philippine Revolution in 1896. Katipunan chapters in Cavite Province, primarily the Magdiwang and the Magdalo had an internal dispute that led to the Tejeros Convention and an election in which Bonifacio lost his position and Emilio Aguinaldo was elected as the new leader of the revolution.[134] Aguinaldo later ordered the execution of Bonifacio.[157] In 1898, the Spanish–American War began, and this war reached Spanish forces in the Philippines. Aguinaldo declared Philippine independence from Spain in Kawit, on June 12, 1898, and the First Philippine Republic was established in Barasoain Church the following year.[134]
The islands were ceded by Spain to the United States as a result of the latter's victory.[158] As it became clear the United States would not recognize Philippine independence, the Philippine–American War broke out,[159] which resulted in the deaths of at least 200,000 and at most, 1 million Filipino civilians, mostly due to famine and disease.[160] Philippine defeat led to American colonization.[161] The Americans suppressed various proto-states: mainly, the waning Sultanate of Sulu, the insurgent Tagalog Republic and the Republic of Zamboanga.[162][163] Throughout these campaigns,[164][165] various atrocities[166][167] committed by Americans against Filipinos have been documented, ranging from genocides[168][169] to human zoos.[170][171]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Manila_Walled_City_Destruction_May_1945.jpg/220px-Manila_Walled_City_Destruction_May_1945.jpg)
During this era, Philippine cinema,[172][173][174] and literature expanded, where the English language was institutionalized through the American educational system.[175] Daniel Burnham built an architectural plan for Manila.[176] The Darul Jambangan, seat of the Sultan of Sulu, was destroyed in 1932.[177][178] In 1935, the Philippines was granted Commonwealth status with Manuel Quezon as president and Sergio Osmeña as vice president. Under Quezon's administration, a national language was designated, women's suffrage and land reform were introduced,[179][180] and Jewish refugees were sheltered from the Holocaust.[181] Despite government cooperation, American racism against Filipinos, especially those who migrated to the US, was still evident.[182][183][184]
Plans for independence were interrupted by World War II when the Japanese Empire invaded and established a Philippine puppet state under Jose P. Laurel.[185] Japanese occupation was notable for war crimes,[186][187] against Filipinos, ranging from maltreatment to sexual slavery,[188][189] which resulted to Filipino opposition.[190][191][192] The Battle of Leyte Gulf occurred when Allied forces began liberating the Philippines from the Japanese Empire.[193][194] Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1945. By the end of the war it is estimated that over a million Filipinos had died.[195][196] On October 11, 1945, the Philippines became one of the founding members of the United Nations.[197]
Contemporary history (1946–present)
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On July 4, 1946, the Philippines was officially recognized by the United States as an independent nation through the Treaty of Manila, during the presidency of Manuel Roxas.[198] Efforts to end the Hukbalahap Rebellion began during Elpidio Quirino's term,[199] while a defense treaty with the US was signed,[200] The Philippines participated in the Korean War in favor of the South.[201][202] Ramon Magsaysay's presidency decimated the Hukbalahap rebellion.[203] Carlos P. Garcia initiated the Filipino First Policy,[204], continued by Diosdado Macapagal, with Independence Day moved from July 4 to June 12,[205][206] while the country pursued a claim on eastern North Borneo.[207][208]
In 1965, Ferdinand Marcos initiated infrastructure projects[209], together with his wife Imelda, through corrupt means, embezzling billions of dollars in public funds,[210][211][212] while his genocidal regime[213][213][214] triggered the Islamic Moro conflict.[215][216] He declared martial law on September 21, 1972,[217][218][219] which led to political repression, censorship, and human rights violations,[220] which included various methods of torture,[221] while the economy became the sick man of Asia,[222] as Chinese-initiated racism[223] and Filipino communist support increased.[224]
The regime has been described as a conjugal dictatorship[225] with an edifice complex.[226]
On August 21, 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr., was assassinated at Manila International Airport, resulting to snap elections.[227] The results were widely regarded as fraudulent,[228] which resulted to the 1986 People Power Revolution,[229] which forced Marcos and his allies to flee to Hawaii and Corazon Aquino became president.[227][230] Throughout the Marcos dictatorship, the nation's foreign debt skyrocketed from $599 million in 1966 to $26.7 billion in 1986, with debt payment being reachable only by 2025.[231]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Corazon_Aquino_inauguration.jpg/220px-Corazon_Aquino_inauguration.jpg)
Corazon Aquino's presidency was hampered by Marcos' debt,[232] coup attempts,[233][234] and a communist insurgency which grew under Marcos.[224][235][236][237] She initiated peace negotiations with Moro separatists,[238] which led to the creation of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao.[239] Mount Pinatubo erupted in June 1991.[240][241][242] Throughout her term, Aquino initiated the restoration of democratic institutions,[243] and paying the nation's foreign debts incurred under Marcos.[244] Fidel V. Ramos' administration made modest economic performance,[245][246][247] amidst China's 1995 seizure of Mischief Reef[248] and the 1997 Asian financial crisis.[249][250]
Joseph Estrada's administration was steeped in corruption involved in jueteng,[251] which led to his ouster through the Second EDSA Revolution.[252] The Philippines sent a peacekeeping mission to Timor-Leste in 2000.[253] Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo became president on January 20, 2001,[254] where the Philippines became a major non-NATO ally.[255] Arroyo's 9-year administration was marked by economic growth,[256] but was tainted by graft and corruption,[257][258][259][260] as well as political scandals.[261][262] The Maguindanao massacre occurred 2009.[263][264]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Carta_Hydrographica_y_Chorographica_de_las_Yslas_Filipinas_Dedicada_al_Rey_Nuestro_Se%C3%B1or_por_el_Mariscal_d._Campo_D._Fernando_Valdes_Tamon_Cavall%C2%BA_del_Orden_de_Santiago_de_Govor._Y_Capn.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg)
Under the presidency of Benigno Aquino III,[265][266] the Benham Rise was confirmed by UNCLOS as part of the nation's continental shelf,[267] while the World Bank declared the Philippines as Asia's Rising Tiger.[268] Aquino filed the Philippines v. China international case in The Hague following a 2012 standoff against China.[269] The case was won by the Philippines.[270][271] A Bangsamoro agreement was signed, but further arrangements was put on hold due to a clash.[272] Despite the effects of Typhoon Haiyan and other calamities, the economy remained strong, with a 7.2% growth rate,[273] where the nation became the fastest growing economy in Asia by the end of his administration.[274] Rodrigo Duterte was elected in 2016,[275][276] and launched a pro-China policy.[277][278][279] and a controversial drug war which, as of 2020[update], had killed 8,000 to 27,000 Filipinos.[280][281][282] The Bangsamoro was created in 2018,[283][284] while the country became the deadliest for environmentalists.[285][286][287] In early 2020, Duterte's mismanagement[288] of the COVID-19 pandemic[289][290] resulted in the highest number of COVID-19 cases in Southeast Asia.[291][292] His administration has been described as a reign of terror.[293][294][295][296]
Geography and environment
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Relief_Map_Of_The_Philippines.png/170px-Relief_Map_Of_The_Philippines.png)
The Philippines is an archipelago composed of about 7,641 islands[297] with a total land area, including inland bodies of water, of 300,000 square kilometers (115,831 sq mi).[298][better source needed] The 36,289 kilometers (22,549 mi) of coastline makes it the country with the fifth longest coastline in the world.[299] The exclusive economic zone of the Philippines covers 2,263,816 km2 (874,064 sq mi).[300] It is located between 116° 40', and 126° 34' E longitude and 4° 40' and 21° 10' N latitude and is bordered by the Philippine Sea[301] to the east, the South China Sea[302] to the west, and the Celebes Sea to the south.[303] The island of Borneo is located a few hundred kilometers southwest[304] and Taiwan is located directly to the north. The Moluccas and Sulawesi are located to the south-southwest and Palau is located to the east of the islands.[305]
The islands are composed of volcanic, coral, principal rock formations.[306] Eight major types of forests are distributed throughout the Philippines; dipterocarp, beach forest, pine forest, molave forest, lower montane forest, upper montane or mossy forest, mangroves, and ultrabasic forest.[307] The highest mountain is Mount Apo. It measures up to 2,954 meters (9,692 ft) above sea level and is located on the island of Mindanao.[308] The Galathea Depth in the Philippine Trench is the deepest point in the country and the third deepest in the world. The trench is located in the Philippine Sea.[309] The Puerto Princesa Subterranean River, which runs 8.2 kilometres (5.1 mi) underground through a karst landscape before reaching the ocean, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[310]
The longest river is the Cagayan River in northern Luzon, measuring about 520 kilometres (320 mi).[311] Manila Bay, upon the shore of which the capital city of Manila lies, is connected to Laguna de Bay, the largest lake in the Philippines, by the Pasig River. Subic Bay, the Davao Gulf, and the Moro Gulf are other important bays.[citation needed] The San Juanico Strait separates the islands of Samar and Leyte but it is traversed by the San Juanico Bridge.[312]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Mt.Mayon_tam3rd.jpg/220px-Mt.Mayon_tam3rd.jpg)
Situated on the western fringes of the Pacific Ring of Fire, the Philippines experiences frequent seismic and volcanic activity.[313] The Benham Plateau to the east in the Philippine Sea is an undersea region active in tectonic subduction.[314] Around 20 earthquakes are registered daily, though most are too weak to be felt. The last major earthquake was the 1990 Luzon earthquake.[315] There are many active volcanoes such as the Mayon Volcano, Mount Pinatubo, and Taal Volcano.[316] The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991 produced the second largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century.[317] The Philippines is the world's second-biggest geothermal energy producer behind the United States, with 18% of the country's electricity needs being met by geothermal power.[318]
Significant mineral deposits exist as a result of the country's complex geologic structure and high level of seismic activity.[319][320] These deposites are considered highly valuable.[321] The country is thought to have the second-largest gold deposits after South Africa, along with a large amount of copper deposits.[322] Palladium, originally discovered in South America, was found to have the world's largest deposits in the Philippines too.[323] Romblon island is a source of high-quality marble.[324] Other minerals include chromite, nickel, and zinc. Despite this, a lack of law enforcement, poor management, opposition due to the presence of indigenous communities, and past instances of environmental damages and disasters, have resulted in these mineral resources remaining largely untapped.[322][325]
Biodiversity
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Pithecophaga_jefferyi_front.jpg/220px-Pithecophaga_jefferyi_front.jpg)
The Philippines is a megadiverse country.[326][327] Around 1,100 land vertebrate species can be found in the Philippines including over 100 mammal species and 170 bird species not thought to exist elsewhere.[328] The Philippines has among the highest rates of discovery in the world with sixteen new species of mammals discovered in the last ten years. Because of this, the rate of endemism for the Philippines has risen and likely will continue to rise.[329] Parts of its marine waters contain the highest diversity of shorefish species in the world.[330]
Large reptiles include the Philippine crocodile[331] and saltwater crocodile.[332] The largest crocodile in captivity, known locally as Lolong, was captured in the southern island of Mindanao,[333] and died on 10 February 2013 from pneumonia and cardiac arrest.[334] The national bird, known as the Philippine eagle, has the longest body of any eagle; it generally measures 86 to 102 cm (2.82 to 3.35 ft) in length and weighs 4.7 to 8.0 kg (10.4 to 17.6 lb).[335][336] The Philippine eagle is part of the family Accipitridae and is endemic to the rainforests of Luzon, Samar, Leyte and Mindanao.[337]
Philippine maritime waters encompass as much as 2,200,000 square kilometers (849,425 sq mi) producing unique and diverse marine life,[338] an important part of the Coral Triangle, a territory shared with other countries.[339][340] The total number of corals and marine fish species was estimated at 500 and 2,400 respectively.[328] New records[341][342] and species discoveries continue.[343][344][345] The Tubbataha Reef in the Sulu Sea was declared a World Heritage Site in 1993.[346] Philippine waters also sustain the cultivation of fish, crustaceans, oysters, and seaweeds.[347] One species of oyster, Pinctada maxima, produces pearls that are naturally golden in color.[348] Pearls have been declared a "National Gem".[349]
With an estimated 13,500 plant species in the country, 3,200 of which are unique to the islands,[328] Philippine rainforests boast an array of flora,[350] including many rare types of orchids[351] and rafflesia.[352] Deforestation, often the result of illegal logging, is an acute problem in the Philippines. Forest cover declined from 70% of the Philippines's total land area in 1900 to about 18.3% in 1999.[353] Many species are endangered and scientists say that Southeast Asia, which the Philippines is part of, faces a catastrophic extinction rate of 20% by the end of the 21st century.[354]
Climate
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Koppen-Geiger_Map_PHL_present.svg/220px-Koppen-Geiger_Map_PHL_present.svg.png)
The Philippines has a tropical maritime climate that is usually hot and humid. There are three seasons: tag-init or tag-araw, the hot dry season or summer from March to May; tag-ulan, the rainy season from June to November; and tag-lamig, the cool dry season from December to February. The southwest monsoon (from May to October) is known as the Habagat, and the dry winds of the northeast monsoon (from November to April), the Amihan. Temperatures usually range from 21 °C (70 °F) to 32 °C (90 °F) although it can get cooler or hotter depending on the season. The coolest month is January; the warmest is May.[355]
The average yearly temperature is around 26.6 °C (79.9 °F). In considering temperature, location in terms of latitude and longitude is not a significant factor. Whether in the extreme north, south, east, or west of the country, temperatures at sea level tend to be in the same range. Altitude usually has more of an impact. The average annual temperature of Baguio at an elevation of 1,500 meters (4,900 ft) above sea level is 18.3 °C (64.9 °F), making it a popular destination during hot summers.[355] Annual rainfall measures as much as 5,000 millimeters (200 in) in the mountainous east coast section but less than 1,000 millimeters (39 in) in some of the sheltered valleys.[356]
Sitting astride the typhoon belt, the islands experience 15-20 typhoons annually from July to October,[356] with around nineteen typhoons[357] entering the Philippine area of responsibility in a typical year and eight or nine making landfall.[358][359] Historically typhoons were sometimes referred to as baguios.[360] The wettest recorded typhoon to hit the Philippines dropped 2,210 millimeters (87 in) in Baguio from 14–18 July 1911.[361] The Philippines is highly exposed to climate change and is among the world's ten countries that are most vulnerable to climate change risks.[362]
Demographics
The Commission on Population estimated the country's population to be 107,190,081 as of December 31, 2018, based on the latest population census of 2015 conducted by the Philippine Statistics Authority.[363] The population increased from 1990 to 2008 by approximately 28 million, a 45% growth in that time frame.[364] The first official census in the Philippines was carried out in 1877 and recorded a population of 5,567,685.[365]
A third of the population resides in Metro Manila and its immediately neighboring regions.[366] The 2.34% average annual population growth rate between 1990 and 2000 decreased to an estimated 1.90% for the 2000–2010 period.[367] Government attempts to reduce population growth have been a contentious issue.[368] The population's median age is 22.7 years with 60.9% aged from 15 to 64 years old.[7] Life expectancy at birth is 69.4 years, 73.1 years for females and 65.9 years for males.[369] Poverty incidence dropped to 21.6% in 2015 from 25.2% in 2012.[370]
Metro Manila is the most populous of the 3 defined metropolitan areas in the Philippines[371] and the 5th most populous in the world.[372] Census data from 2015 showed it had a population of 12,877,253 constituting almost 13% of the national population.[373] Including suburbs in the adjacent provinces (Bulacan, Cavite, Laguna, and Rizal) of Greater Manila, the population is around 23,088,000.[372] Across the country, the Philippines has a total urbanization rate of 51.2 percent.[373] Metro Manila's gross regional product was estimated as of 2009[update] to be ₱468.4 billion (at constant 1985 prices) and accounts for 33% of the nation's GDP.[374] In 2011 Manila ranked as the 28th wealthiest urban agglomeration in the world and the 2nd in Southeast Asia.[375]
Rank | Name | Region | Pop. | Rank | Name | Region | Pop. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
![]() Quezon City ![]() Manila |
1 | Quezon City | National Capital Region | 2,960,048 | 11 | Valenzuela | National Capital Region | 714,978 | ![]() Davao City ![]() Caloocan |
2 | Manila | National Capital Region | 1,846,513 | 12 | Dasmariñas | Calabarzon | 703,141 | ||
3 | Davao City | Davao Region | 1,776,949 | 13 | General Santos | Soccsksargen | 697,315 | ||
4 | Caloocan | National Capital Region | 1,661,584 | 14 | Parañaque | National Capital Region | 689,992 | ||
5 | Taguig | National Capital Region | 1,261,738 | 15 | Bacoor | Calabarzon | 664,625 | ||
6 | Zamboanga City | Zamboanga Peninsula | 977,234 | 16 | San Jose del Monte | Central Luzon | 651,813 | ||
7 | Cebu City | Central Visayas | 964,169 | 17 | Las Piñas | National Capital Region | 606,293 | ||
8 | Antipolo | Calabarzon | 887,399 | 18 | Bacolod | Negros Island Region | 600,783 | ||
9 | Pasig | National Capital Region | 803,159 | 19 | Muntinlupa | National Capital Region | 543,445 | ||
10 | Cagayan de Oro | Northern Mindanao | 728,402 | 20 | Calamba | Calabarzon | 539,671 |
Ethnic groups
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Peoples_of_the_Philippines_en.svg/220px-Peoples_of_the_Philippines_en.svg.png)
According to the 2010 census, 24.4% of Filipinos are Tagalog, 11.4% Visayans/Bisaya (excluding Cebuano, Hiligaynon and Waray), 9.9% Cebuano, 8.8% Ilocano, 8.4% Hiligaynon, 6.8% Bikol, 4% Waray, and 26.2% as "others",[7][376] which can be broken down further to yield more distinct non-tribal groups like the Moro, the Kapampangan, the Pangasinense, the Ibanag, and the Ivatan.[377] There are also indigenous peoples like the Igorot, the Lumad, the Mangyan, the Bajau, and the tribes of Palawan.[378]
Negritos are considered among the earliest inhabitants of the islands.[379] These minority aboriginal settlers are an Australoid group and are a left-over from the first human migration out of Africa to Australia, and were likely displaced by later waves of migration.[380] At least some Negritos in the Philippines have Denisovan admixture in their genomes.[381][382] Ethnic Filipinos generally belong to several Southeast Asian ethnic groups classified linguistically as part of the Austronesian or Malayo-Polynesian speaking people.[378] There is some uncertainty over the origin of this Austronesian speaking population, with it being likely that ancestors related to Taiwanese aborigines brought their language and mixed with existing populations in the area.[383][384] European DNA is present in many Filipinos today.[385] Estimates of what percentage of the population is of European descent range from a 3.6%, as per a Standford Study,[386] to a 7% as per a collective analysis of Philippine graveyards.[387] The country also historically received settlers from Latin America.[388] A thesis by Nandar Yukyi, classifying and comparing Hispanic-Americans and Asians show phenotypical overlap between Mexicans, Filipinos, Guatemalans and North Japanese.[389]
Chinese Filipinos are mostly the descendants of immigrants from Fujian in China after 1898,[390] numbering around 2 million, although there are an estimated 20 percent of Filipinos who have partial Chinese ancestry, stemming from precolonial and colonial Chinese migrants.[391] While a distinct minority, Chinese Filipinos are well-integrated into Filipino society.[392] As of 2015, there were 220,000 to 600,000 American citizens living in the country.[393] There are also up to 250,000 Amerasians scattered across the cities of Angeles, Manila, Clark and Olongapo.[394] Other important non-indigenous minorities include Indians[395] and Arabs.[396] There are also Japanese people, which include escaped Christians (Kirishitan) who fled the persecutions of Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu which the Spanish empire in the Philippines had offered asylum from.[397] The descendants of mixed-race couples are known as Tisoy.[398] Research work published in the Journal of Forensic Anthropology, collating contemporary Anthropological data show that the percentage of Filipino bodies who were sampled from the University of the Philippines, that's phenotypically classified as Asian (East, South and Southeast Asian) is 72.7%, Hispanic (Spanish-Amerindian Mestizo, Latin American and/or Spanish-Malay Mestizo) is at 12.7%, Indigenous American (Native American) at 7.3%, African at 4.5%, and European at 2.7%.[399]
Languages
Language | Speakers | ||
---|---|---|---|
Tagalog | 24.44 % | 22,512,089 | |
Cebuano | 21.35 % | 19,665,453 | |
Ilokano | 8.77 % | 8,074,536 | |
Hiligaynon | 8.44 % | 7,773,655 | |
Waray | 3.97 % | 3,660,645 | |
Other local languages/dialects | 26.09 % | 24,027,005 | |
Other foreign languages/dialects | 0.09 % | 78,862 | |
Not reported/not stated | 0.01 % | 6,450 | |
TOTAL | 92,097,978 | ||
Source: Philippine Statistics Authority[5] |
Ethnologue lists 186 individual languages in the Philippines, 182 of which are living languages, while 4 no longer have any known speakers. Most native languages are part of the Philippine branch of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, which is itself a branch of the Austronesian language family.[378][400] In addition, various Spanish-based creole varieties collectively called Chavacano exist.[401] There are also many Philippine Negrito languages that have unique vocabularies that survived Austronesian acculturation.[402]
Filipino and English are the official languages of the country.[403] Filipino is a standardized version of Tagalog, spoken mainly in Metro Manila.[404] Both Filipino and English are used in government, education, print, broadcast media, and business, with third local languages often being used at the same time.[405] The Philippine constitution provides for the promotion of Spanish and Arabic on a voluntary and optional basis.[403] Spanish, which was widely used as a lingua franca in the late nineteenth century, has since declined greatly in use,[406] although Spanish loanwords are still present today in Philippine languages,[407][408] while Arabic is mainly taught in Islamic schools in Mindanao.[409]
Nineteen regional languages act as auxiliary official languages used as media of instruction: Aklanon, Bikol, Cebuano, Chavacano, Hiligaynon, Ibanag, Ilocano, Ivatan, Kapampangan, Kinaray-a, Maguindanao, Maranao, Pangasinan, Sambal, Surigaonon, Tagalog, Tausug, Waray, and Yakan.[2] Other indigenous languages such as, Cuyonon, Ifugao, Itbayat, Kalinga, Kamayo, Kankanaey, Masbateño, Romblomanon, Manobo, and several Visayan languages are prevalent in their respective provinces.[410] Article 3 of Republic Act No. 11106 declared the Filipino Sign Language as the national sign language of the Philippines, specifying that it shall be recognized, supported and promoted as the medium of official communication in all transactions involving the deaf, and as the language of instruction of deaf education.[411][412]
Religion
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/St._Agustine_Paoay_Church_02.jpg/220px-St._Agustine_Paoay_Church_02.jpg)
The Philippines is a secular state which protects freedom of religion. Christianity is the dominant faith,[413][414] shared by over 90% of the population.[415] Census data from 2015 found that about 79.53% of the population professed Catholicism.[416] Around 37% of the population regularly attend Mass. 29% of self-identified Catholics consider themselves very religious.[417] An independent Catholic church, the Philippine Independent Church, has around 66,959 adherents.[416]
Protestants were 10.8% of the population in 2010.[418] 2.64% of the population are members of Iglesia ni Cristo.[416] The combined following of the Philippine Council of Evangelical Churches comes to 2.42% of the total population.[416][419]
Islam is the second largest religion. The Muslim population of the Philippines was reported as 6.01% of the total population according to census returns in 2015.[416] Conversely, a 2012 report by the National Commission of Muslim Filipinos (NCMF) stated that about 10,700,000 or 11% of Filipinos are Muslims.[413] The majority of Muslims live in Mindanao and nearby islands.[414][420] Most practice Sunni Islam under the Shafi'i school.[421][422]
The percentage of combined positive atheist and agnostic people in the Philippines was measured to be about 3% of the population as of 2008.[423] The 2015 Philippine Census reported the religion of about 0.02% of the population as "none".[416] A 2014 survey by Gallup International Association reported that 21% of its respondents identify as "not a religious person".[424]
Around 0.24% of the population practice indigenous Philippine folk religions,[416] whose practices and folk beliefs are often syncretized with Christianity and Islam.[425][426] There have been proposals to revitalize the indigenous religions of the Philippines.[427] Buddhism is practiced by around 0.03% of the population,[416] concentrated among Filipinos of Chinese descent.[428]
Health
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/68/Saint_Luke%27s_Global_City_%28BGC%2C_Taguig%29%282018-06-04%29.jpg/220px-Saint_Luke%27s_Global_City_%28BGC%2C_Taguig%29%282018-06-04%29.jpg)
In 2016, 63.1% of healthcare came from private expenditures while 36.9% was from the government (12.4% from the national government, 7.1% from the local government, and 17.4% from social health insurance).[429] Total health expenditure share in GDP for the year 2016 was 4.5%. Per capita health expenditure rate in 2015 was US$323, which was one of the lowest in Southeast Asia.[430] The budget allocation for Healthcare in 2019 was ₱98.6 billion[431] and had an increase in budget in 2014 with a record high in the collection of taxes from the House Bill 5727 (commonly known as Sin tax Bill).[432]
There were 101,688 hospital beds in the country in 2016, with government hospital beds accounting for 47% and private hospital beds for 53%.[433] In 2009, there were an estimated 90,370 physicians or 1 per every 833 people, 480,910 nurses and 43,220 dentists.[434] Retention of skilled practitioners is a problem. Seventy percent of nursing graduates go overseas to work. As of 2007[update], the Philippines was the largest supplier of nurses for export.[435] The Philippines suffers a triple burden of high levels of communicable diseases, high levels of non-communicable diseases, and high exposure to natural disasters.[436]
In 2018, there were 1,258 hospitals licensed by the Department of Health, of which 433 (34%) were government-run and 825 (66%) private.[437] A total of 20,065 barangay health stations (BHS) and 2,590 rural health units (RHUs) provide primary care services throughout the country as of 2016.[438] Cardiovascular diseases account for more than 35% of all deaths.[439][440] 9,264 cases of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) were reported for the year 2016, with 8,151 being asymptomatic cases.[441] At the time the country was considered a low-HIV-prevalence country, with less than 0.1% of the adult population estimated to be HIV-positive.[442] HIV/AIDS cases increased from 12,000 in 2005[443] to 39,622 as of 2016, with 35,957 being asymptomatic cases.[441]
There is improvement in patients access to medicines due to Filipinos' growing acceptance of generic drugs, with 6 out of 10 Filipinos already using generics.[444] While the country's universal healthcare implementation is underway as spearheaded by the state-owned Philippine Health Insurance Corporation,[445] most healthcare-related expenses are either borne out of pocket[446] or through health maintenance organization (HMO)-provided health plans. As of April 2020, there are only about 7 million individuals covered by these plans.[447]
Education
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/UP_Diliman_Quezon_Hall.jpg/220px-UP_Diliman_Quezon_Hall.jpg)
The Philippines had a simple literacy rate of 98.3% as of 2015, and a functional literacy rate of 90.3% as of 2013.[449] Education takes up a significant proportion of the national budget. In the 2020 budget, education was allocated PHP17.1 billion from the PHP4.1 trillion budget.[450]
The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) lists 2,180 higher education institutions, among which 607 are public and 1,573 are private.[451] Classes start in June and end in March. The majority of colleges and universities follow a semester calendar from June to October and November to March, while some have adopted an increasingly common semester calendar from August to December and January to May.[305] Primary and secondary schooling is divided between a 6-year elementary period, a 4-year junior high school period, and a 2-year senior high school period.[452][453][454]
The Department of Education (DepEd) covers elementary, secondary, and non-formal education.[455] The Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) administers middle-level education training and development.[456][457] The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) was created in 1994 to, among other functions, formulate and recommend development plans, policies, priorities, and programs on higher education and research.[458]
In 2004, madaris were mainstreamed in 16 regions nationwide, mainly in Muslim areas in Mindanao under the auspices and program of the Department of Education.[459] Public universities are all non-sectarian entities, and are further classified as State Universities and Colleges (SUC) or Local Colleges and Universities (LCU).[451] The University of the Philippines, a system of eight (8) constituent universities, is the national university system of the Philippines.[460] The country's top ranked universities are as follows: University of the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila University, De La Salle University, and University of Santo Tomas.[461][462][463] The University of Santo Tomas, established in 1611, has the oldest extant university charter in the Philippines and Asia.[464][465]
Government and politics
The Philippines has a democratic government in the form of a constitutional republic with a presidential system.[466] It is governed as a unitary state, with the exception of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM),[467] although there has been several steps towards decentralization within the unitary framework.[468][469] There have been attempts to change the government to a federal, unicameral, or parliamentary government since the Ramos administration.[470] There is a significant amount of corruption in the Philippines,[471][472][473] which some historians attribute to the system of governance put in place during the Spanish colonial period.[474]
The President functions as both head of state and head of government and is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The president is elected by popular vote for a single six-year term, during which he or she appoints and presides over the cabinet.[305] The current President is Rodrigo Duterte.[275] The bicameral Congress is composed of the Senate, serving as the upper house, with members elected to a six-year term, and the House of Representatives, serving as the lower house, with members elected to a three-year term.[305] Philippine politics tends to be dominated by those with well-known names, such as members of political dynasties or celebrities.[475]
Senators are elected at large while the representatives are elected from both legislative districts and through sectoral representation.[305] The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court, composed of a Chief Justice as its presiding officer and fourteen associate justices, all of whom are appointed by the President from nominations submitted by the Judicial and Bar Council.[305]
Foreign relations
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/APEC_Philippines_2015_delegates.jpg/220px-APEC_Philippines_2015_delegates.jpg)
As a founding and active member of the United Nations,[476] the country has been elected to the Security Council.[477] Carlos P. Romulo was a former President of the United Nations General Assembly.[478] The country is an active participant in the Human Rights Council[citation needed] as well as in peacekeeping missions, particularly in East Timor.[253] Over 10 million Filipinos live and work overseas.[479][480]
The Philippines is a founding and active member of ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations).[481] It has hosted several summits and is an active contributor to the direction and policies of the bloc.[482][483] It is also a member of the East Asia Summit (EAS),[484] the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the Group of 24, and the Non-Aligned Movement.[305] The country is also seeking to obtain observer status in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.[485][486]
The Philippines has a long relationship with the United States, covering economics, security, and people-to-people relations.[487] A mutual defense treaty between the two countries was signed in 1951, and supplemented later with the 1999 Visiting Forces Agreement and the 2016 Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement.[488] The Philippines supported American policies during the Cold War and participated in the Korean and Vietnam wars.[489][490] In 2003 the Philippines was designated a Major non-NATO ally.[491] Controversies related to the presence of the now former U.S. military bases in Subic Bay and Clark and the current Visiting Forces Agreement have flared up from time to time.[487][failed verification] Under President Duterte ties with the United States have weakened[492] with military purchases instead coming from China and Russia,[493][494] while Duterte states that the Philippines will no longer participate in any US-led wars.[495]
The Philippines attaches great importance in its relations with China, and has established significant cooperation with the country.[496][497][498][499][500][501] Japan is the biggest bilateral contributor of official development assistance to the country.[502][503][504] Although historical tensions exist due to the events of World War II, much of the animosity has faded.[505]
Historical and cultural ties continue to affect relations with Spain.[506][507] Relations with Middle Eastern countries are shaped by the high number of Filipinos working in these countries,[508] and by issues relating the Muslim minority in the Philippines.[509] Concerns have been raised regarding issues such as domestic abuse and war affecting[510][511] the around 2.5 million overseas Filipino workers in the region.[512]
The Philippines has claims in the Spratly Islands which overlap with claims by China, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Vietnam. The largest of its controlled islands in Thitu Island, which contains the Philippine's smallest village.[513][514] The Scarborough Shoal standoff in 2012, where China took control of the shoal from the Philippines, led to an international arbitration case[515] and has made the shoal a prominent symbol in the wider dispute.[516]
Military
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/PF-15_and_SARV-002_CARAT_2013.jpg/220px-PF-15_and_SARV-002_CARAT_2013.jpg)
The Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) consist of three branches: the Philippine Air Force, the Philippine Army, and the Philippine Navy.[517] The Armed Forces of the Philippines are a volunteer force.[518] Civilian security is handled by the Philippine National Police under the Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG).[519][520]
In the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao, the largest separatist organization, the Moro National Liberation Front is now engaging the government politically. Other more militant groups like the Moro Islamic Liberation Front,[521] and the Abu Sayyaf have kidnapped foreigners for ransom, particularly in Mindanao.[523][524][525][526] Their presence decreased due to successful security provided by the Philippine government.[527] The Communist Party of the Philippines and its military wing, the New People's Army, have been waging guerrilla warfare against the government since the 1970s, reaching its apex on 1986 when Communist guerrillas gained control of a fifth of the country's territory, before significantly dwindling militarily and politically after the return of democracy in 1986.[528][529] As of 2018[update], $2.843 billion,[530] or 1.1 percent of GDP is spent on military forces.[531]
Administrative divisions
The Philippines is divided into three island groups: Luzon, the Visayas, and Mindanao.[citation needed] These are further divided into 17 regions, 81 provinces, 146 cities, 1,488 municipalities, and 42,036 barangays.[532] Regions serve primarily to organize the provinces of the country for administrative convenience. The Philippines is divided into 17 regions (16 administrative and 1 autonomous).[citation needed] As of 2015[update], Calabarzon was the most populated region while the National Capital Region (NCR) the most densely populated.[298]
Designation | Name | Area[298] | Population (as of 2015[update])[533] |
% of Population | Population density[298] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
NCR | National Capital Region | 619.54 km2 (239.21 sq mi) | 12,877,253 | 12.75% | 20,785/km2 (53,830/sq mi) |
Region I | Ilocos Region | 12,964.62 km2 (5,005.67 sq mi) | 5,026,128 | 4.98% | 388/km2 (1,000/sq mi) |
CAR | Cordillera Administrative Region | 19,818.12 km2 (7,651.82 sq mi) | 1,722,006 | 1.71% | 87/km2 (230/sq mi) |
Region II | Cagayan Valley | 29,836.88 km2 (11,520.08 sq mi) | 3,451,410 | 3.42% | 116/km2 (300/sq mi) |
Region III | Central Luzon | 22,014.63 km2 (8,499.90 sq mi) | 11,218,177 | 11.11% | 512/km2 (1,330/sq mi) |
Region IV-A | Calabarzon | 16,576.26 km2 (6,400.13 sq mi) | 14,414,774 | 14.27% | 870/km2 (2,300/sq mi) |
Region IV-B | Mimaropa | 29,606.25 km2 (11,431.04 sq mi) | 2,963,360 | 2.93% | 100/km2 (260/sq mi) |
Region V | Bicol Region | 18,114.47 km2 (6,994.04 sq mi) | 5,796,989 | 5.74% | 320/km2 (830/sq mi) |
Region VI | Western Visayas | 20,778.29 km2 (8,022.54 sq mi) | 7,536,383 | 7.46% | 363/km2 (940/sq mi) |
Region VII | Central Visayas | 15,872.58 km2 (6,128.44 sq mi) | 7,396,898 | 7.33% | 466/km2 (1,210/sq mi) |
Region VIII | Eastern Visayas | 23,234.78 km2 (8,971.00 sq mi) | 4,440,150 | 4.40% | 191/km2 (490/sq mi) |
Region IX | Zamboanga Peninsula | 16,904.03 km2 (6,526.68 sq mi) | 3,629,783 | 3.59% | 215/km2 (560/sq mi) |
Region X | Northern Mindanao | 20,458.51 km2 (7,899.07 sq mi) | 4,689,302 | 4.64% | 229/km2 (590/sq mi) |
Region XI | Davao Region | 20,433.38 km2 (7,889.37 sq mi) | 4,893,318 | 4.85% | 239/km2 (620/sq mi) |
Region XII | Soccsksargen | 22,610.08 km2 (8,729.80 sq mi) | 4,245,838 | 4.20% | 188/km2 (490/sq mi) |
Region XIII | Caraga | 21,120.56 km2 (8,154.69 sq mi) | 2,596,709 | 2.57% | 123/km2 (320/sq mi) |
BARMM | Bangsamoro | 36,826.95 km2 (14,218.96 sq mi) | 4,080,825 | 4.04% | 111/km2 (290/sq mi) |
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Labelled_map_of_the_Philippines_-_Provinces_and_Regions.png/800px-Labelled_map_of_the_Philippines_-_Provinces_and_Regions.png)
Economy
![Philippine Export Treemap in 2012.](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Philippines_Exports_Treemap_2017.svg/280px-Philippines_Exports_Treemap_2017.svg.png)
The Philippine economy has produced an estimated gross domestic product (nominal) of $356.8 billion.[11] Primary exports include semiconductors and electronic products, transport equipment, garments, copper products, petroleum products, coconut oil, and fruits. Major trading partners include the United States, Japan, China, Singapore, South Korea, the Netherlands, Hong Kong, Germany, Taiwan, and Thailand.[7] Its unit of currency is the Philippine peso (₱[534] or PHP[535]).[536]
A newly industrialized country,[537] the Philippine economy has been transitioning from one based upon agriculture to an economy with more emphasis upon services and manufacturing.[538] Of the country's 2018 labor force of around 43.46 million, the agricultural sector employed 24.3%,[539] and accounted for 8.1% of 2018 GDP.[540] The industrial sector employed around 19% of the workforce and accounted for 34.1% of GDP, while 57% of the workers involved in the services sector were responsible for 57.8% of GDP.[540][541]
The unemployment rate as of October 2019[update], stands at 4.5%.[542] Meanwhile, due to lower charges in basic necessities, the inflation rate eased to 1.7% in August 2019.[543] Gross international reserves as of October 2013 are $83.201 billion.[544] The Debt-to-GDP ratio continues to decline to 37.6% as of the second quarter of 2019[545][546] from a record high of 78% in 2004.[547] The country is a net importer[548] but it is also a creditor nation.[549] Manila hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank.[550]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Nagacadan_Rice_Terraces.jpg/220px-Nagacadan_Rice_Terraces.jpg)
The 1997 Asian Financial Crisis affected the economy, resulting in a lingering decline of the value of the peso and falls in the stock market. The extent it was affected initially was not as severe as that of some of its Asian neighbors. This was largely due to the fiscal conservatism of the government, partly as a result of decades of monitoring and fiscal supervision from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), in comparison to the massive spending of its neighbors on the rapid acceleration of economic growth.[245] There have been signs of progress since. In 2004, the economy experienced 6.4% GDP growth and 7.1% in 2007, its fastest pace of growth in three decades.[552][553] Average annual GDP growth per capita for the period 1966–2007 still stands at 1.45% in comparison to an average of 5.96% for the East Asia and the Pacific region as a whole. The daily income for 45% of the population of the Philippines remains less than $2.[554][555][556]
Remittances from overseas Filipinos contribute significantly to the Philippine economy,[557] surpassing foreign direct investment as a source of foreign currency.[citation needed] Remittances peaked in 2006 at 10.4% of the national GDP, and were 8.6% and 8.5% in 2012 and in 2014 respectively.[557] In 2014 the total worth of foreign exchange remittances was US$28 billion.[558] Regional development is uneven, with Luzon – Metro Manila in particular – gaining most of the new economic growth at the expense of the other regions,[559][560] although the government has taken steps to distribute economic growth by promoting investment in other areas of the country. Despite constraints, service industries such as Tourism in the Philippines[561] and business process outsourcing have been identified as areas with some of the best opportunities for growth for the country.[562] The Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) industry is composed of eight sub-sectors, namely, knowledge process outsourcing and back offices, animation, call centers, software development, game development, engineering design, and medical transcription.[563] In 2010[update], the Philippines was reported as having eclipsed India as the main center of BPO services in the world.[564][565][566]
Science and technology
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Head_Quarters_of_the_International_Rice_Research_Institute_in_Los_Ba%C3%B1os_-_panoramio.jpg/220px-Head_Quarters_of_the_International_Rice_Research_Institute_in_Los_Ba%C3%B1os_-_panoramio.jpg)
The Department of Science and Technology is the governing agency responsible for the development of coordination of science and technology-related projects in the Philippines.[567] Research organizations in the country include the International Rice Research Institute,[568] which focuses on the development of new rice varieties and rice crop management techniques.[569]
The Philippines bought its first satellite in 1996.[570] In 2016, the Philippines first micro-satellite, Diwata-1 was launched aboard the US Cygnus spacecraft.[571] The Philippines has a high concentration of cellular phone users.[572] Text messaging is a popular form of communication and, in 2007, the nation sent an average of one billion SMS messages per day.[573] The country has a high level of mobile financial services utilization.[574] The Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company, commonly known as PLDT, is a formerly nationalized telecommunications provider.[572] It is also the largest company in the country.[575] The National Telecommunications Commission is the agency responsible for the supervision, adjudication and control over all telecommunications services throughout the country.[576] There are approximately 417 AM and 1079 FM radio stations and 438 television and 1,551 cable television stations.[577] On March 29, 1994, the country was connected to the Internet via a 64 kbit/s connection from a router serviced by PLDT to a Sprint router in California.[578] Estimates for Internet penetration in the Philippines vary widely ranging from a low of 2.5 million to a high of 24 million people.[579][580] Social networking and watching videos are among the most frequent Internet activities.[581] The Philippine population is the world's top internet user.[582]
Tourism
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Big_lagoon_entrance%2C_Miniloc_island_-_panoramio.jpg/220px-Big_lagoon_entrance%2C_Miniloc_island_-_panoramio.jpg)
The travel and tourism sector contributed 10.6% of the country's GDP in 2015[583] and providing 1,226,500 jobs in 2013.[584] 8,260,913 international visitors arrived from January to December 2019, up by 15.24% for the same period in 2018.[585] 58.62% (4,842,774) of these came from East Asia, 15.84% (1,308,444) came from North America, and 6.38% (526,832) came from other ASEAN countries.[449] The island of Boracay, popular for its beaches, was named as the best island in the world by Travel + Leisure in 2012.[586] The Philippines is also a popular retirement destination for foreigners due to its climate and low cost of living.[587] Since 2012, the official tourism slogan of the country is It's More Fun in the Philippines.[588][589]
Infrastructure
Transportation
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/MRT-2_Train_Santolan_1.jpg/220px-MRT-2_Train_Santolan_1.jpg)
Transportation in the Philippines is facilitated by road, air, rail and waterways. As of December 2018, there are 210,528 kilometers (130,816 mi) of roads in the Philippines, with only 65,101 kilometers (40,452 mi) of roads paved.[590] The 919-kilometer (571 mi) Strong Republic Nautical Highway (SRNH), an integrated set of highway segments and ferry routes covering 17 cities was established in 2003.[591] The Pan-Philippine Highway connects the islands of Luzon, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao, forming the backbone of land-based transportation in the country.[592] Roads are the dominant form of transport, carrying 98% of people and 58% of cargo. A network of expressways extends from the capital to other areas of Luzon.[593] The 8.25-kilometre (5.13 mi) Cebu–Cordova Link Expressway in Cebu will be finished by 2021.[594] Traffic is a significant issue facing the country, especially within Manila and on arterial roads connecting to the capital.[595]
Public transport in the country include buses, jeepneys, UV Express, TNVS, Filcab, taxis, and tricycles.[596][597] Jeepneys are a popular and iconic public utility vehicle.[598] Jeepneys and other Public Utility Vehicles which are older than 15 years are being phased out gradually in favor of a more efficient and environmentally friendly Euro 4 compliant vehicles.[599][600]
Despite wider historical use, Rail transport in the Philippines is extremely limited, being confined to transporting passengers within Metro Manila and neighboring Laguna, with a separate short track in the Bicol Region.[601] There are plans to revive Freight transport to reduce road congestion.[602][603] As of 2019[update], the country had a railway footprint of only 79 kilometers, which it had plans to expand up to 244 kilometers.[604][605] Metro Manila is served by three rapid transit lines: Line 1, Line 2 and Line 3.[606][607][608] The PNR South Commuter Line transports passengers between Metro Manila and Laguna.[609] Railway lines that are under-construction include the 4-kilometre (2.5 mi) Line 2 East Extension Project (2020),[610] the 22.8-kilometre (14.2 mi) Line 7 (2020),[611] the 35-kilometre (22 mi) Line 9 (Metro Manila Subway) (2025),[612] and the 109-kilometre (68 mi) PNR North-South Commuter Railway which is divided into several phases, with partial operations to begin in 2022.[613] The civil airline industry is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines.[614] Philippine Airlines is Asia's oldest commercial airline still operating under its original name.[615][616] Cebu Pacific is the countries leading low-cost carrier.[617]
As an archipelago, inter-island travel using watercraft is often necessary.[618] Boats have always been important to societies in the Philippines.[619][620] Most boats are double-outrigger vessels, which can reach up to 30 metres (98 ft) in length, known as banca[621]/bangka,[622] parao, prahu, or balanghay. A variety of boat types are used throughout the islands, such as dugouts (baloto) and house-boats like the lepa-lepa.[620] Terms such as bangka and baroto are also used as general names for a variety of boat types.[622] Modern ships use plywood in place of logs and motor engines in place of sails.[621] These ships are used both for fishing and for inter-island travel.[622] The principal seaports of Manila, Batangas, Subic Bay, Cebu, Iloilo, Davao, Cagayan de Oro, General Santos, and Zamboanga form part of the ASEAN Transport Network.[623][624] The Pasig River Ferry serves the cities of Manila, Makati, Mandaluyong, Pasig and Marikina in Metro Manila.[625][626]
Water supply and sanitation
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Ambuklao_Dam_captured_by_Mitchell_Yumul.jpeg/220px-Ambuklao_Dam_captured_by_Mitchell_Yumul.jpeg)
Access to water is universal, affordable, efficient, and of high quality. The creation of financially sustainable water service providers ("Water Districts") in small and medium towns with the continuous long-term support of a national agency (the "Local Water Utilities Administration" LWUA); and the improvement of access, service quality, and efficiency in Manila through two high-profile water concessions awarded in 1997. The challenges include limited access to sanitation services, high pollution of water resources, often poor drinking water quality and poor service quality, fragmentation of executive functions at the national level among numerous agencies, and a fragmentation of service provision at the local level into many small service providers.[citation needed] In 2015, it was reported by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation that 74% of the population had access to improved sanitation, and that "good progress" had been made between 1990 and 2015.[627] As of 2016, 96% of Filipino households have an improved source of drinking water, and 92% of households had sanitary toilet facilities, although connections of these toilet facilities to appropriate sewerage systems remain largely insufficient especially in rural and urban poor communities.[628]
Culture
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Kaamulan_Festival_-_Tableau_Presentation.jpg/220px-Kaamulan_Festival_-_Tableau_Presentation.jpg)
Filipino culture is a combination of Eastern and Western cultures. The Philippines exhibits aspects found in other Asian countries with a Malay heritage, yet its culture also displays a significant number of Spanish and American influences. Traditional festivities known as barrio fiestas (district festivals) to commemorate the feast days of patron saints are common, these community celebrations are times for feasting, music, and dancing.[citation needed] The Ati-Atihan, Moriones and Sinulog festivals are among the most well-known.[629][630][631] The culture within Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago developed separately to that of the rest of the country, due to very limited degree of Spanish influence and greater influence from nearby Islamic regions.[632]
Some traditions, however, are changing or gradually being forgotten due to modernization. The Bayanihan Philippine National Folk Dance Company has been lauded for preserving many of the various traditional folk dances found throughout the Philippines. They are famed for their iconic performances of Philippine dances such as the tinikling and singkil that both feature clashing bamboo poles.[633]
One of the most visible Hispanic legacies is the prevalence of Spanish names and surnames among Filipinos; a Spanish name and surname, however, does not necessarily denote Spanish ancestry. This peculiarity, unique among the people of Asia, came as a result of a colonial edict by Governor-General Narciso Clavería y Zaldua, which ordered the systematic distribution of family names and implementation of Hispanic nomenclature on the population.[634] The names of many locations are also Spanish, or stem from Spanish roots and origins.[635]
The common use of the English language is an example of the American impact on Philippine society. It has contributed to the ready acceptance and influence of American pop cultural trends. This affinity is seen in Filipinos' love of fast food and American film and music. Fast food outlets are found on many street corners.[citation needed] American global fast-food chain stalwarts have entered the market, but local fast-food chains like Goldilocks[636] and most notably Jollibee, the leading fast-food chain in the country, have emerged and competed successfully against foreign chains.[637]
Literature
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Noli_Me_Tangere.jpg/220px-Noli_Me_Tangere.jpg)
Philippine mythology, an important part of the indigenous Philippine folk religions, has been handed down primarily through the traditional oral folk literature of the Filipino people, although written texts have also been made. While each unique ethnic group has its own stories and myths to tell, Hindu and Spanish influences can nonetheless be detected in many cases. Philippine mythology mostly consists of creation stories or stories about the sacred deities, gods, goddesses, and heroes, such as Bathala, Kan-Laon, Maria Makiling, Mayari, Bakunawa, and Lam-Ang, and supernatural creatures, such as the aswang, manananggal, engkanto, sarangay, anggitay, kataw, sigbin, and sarimanok.[639][640][641]
Philippine literature comprises works usually written in Filipino, Spanish, or English. Some of the most known were created from the 17th to 19th century.[642] Adarna, for example, is a famous epic about an eponymous magical bird allegedly written by José de la Cruz or "Huseng Sisiw".[643] Francisco Balagtas, the poet and playwright who wrote Florante at Laura, is recognized as a preeminent writer in the Tagalog (Filipino) language.[644] José Rizal wrote the novels Noli Me Tángere (Touch Me Not) and El Filibusterismo (The Filibustering, also known as The Reign of Greed).[645]
Architecture and art
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Batad_Rice_Terraces%2C_Ifugao_Province%2C_Philippines.jpg/220px-Batad_Rice_Terraces%2C_Ifugao_Province%2C_Philippines.jpg)
The basis of all houses, buildings, and structures in the Philippines is the people's varied vernacular architectures.[646] Spanish architecture has left an imprint in the Philippines in the way many towns were designed around a central square or plaza mayor, but many of the buildings bearing its influence were demolished during World War II.[63] Four Philippine baroque churches are included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the San Agustín Church in Manila, Paoay Church in Ilocos Norte, Nuestra Señora de la Asunción (Santa María) Church in Ilocos Sur, and Santo Tomás de Villanueva Church in Iloilo.[647] Vigan in Ilocos Sur is also known for the many Hispanic-style houses and buildings preserved there.[648]
American rule introduced new architectural styles. This led to the construction of government buildings and Art Deco theaters. During the American period, some semblance of city planning using the architectural designs and master plans by Daniel Burnham was done on the portions of the city of Manila. Part of the Burnham plan was the construction of government buildings that resembled Greek or Neoclassical architecture.[649] In Iloilo, structures from both the Spanish and American periods can still be seen, especially in Calle Real.[650] Certain areas of the country like Batanes have slight differences as both Spanish and Filipino ways of architecture assimilated differently due to the climate. Limestones were used as a building material, with houses being built to withstand typhoons.[651]
Music
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Mindanao_Bangsamoro_Islamic_Musical_Instruments.jpg/220px-Mindanao_Bangsamoro_Islamic_Musical_Instruments.jpg)
Philippine music has evolved rapidly due to the different influences stemming from colonialization under other countries. Before the Spanish conquest of the islands, most music was reminiscent of, or heavily influenced by, nature. Some examples of this tribal music is Koyu No Tebulul of the T'boli and Ambo Hato of the Ifugao. This genre is often accompanied by gong music and one well known instrument is the Kulintang.[citation needed] During the Spanish era Rondalya music, where traditional string orchestra mandolin type instruments were used, was widespread.[652]
Marcelo Adonay (organist), Simplicio Solis (organist), Diego C. Perez (pianist), Jose Conseco (pianist) and Doña Dolores Paterno (composer) were some of the recognized musicians in this era.[citation needed] Nowadays, American pop culture has a heavy hold on the Filipinos that evolved from the Spanish times when the American occupation happened.[653] Recently K-pop has become popular.[654] Karaoke is a popular event in the country.[655] The revival of Spanish-influence folk music has been possible thanks to the different choir groups coming in and going out of the country, such as the Philippine Madrigal Singers.[citation needed]
Dance
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Folklore_of_the_popular_heritage_of_the_State_of_the_Philippines_05.jpg/220px-Folklore_of_the_popular_heritage_of_the_State_of_the_Philippines_05.jpg)
Just like the evolution of Philippine music, dance as well has been in constant change. Prior to colonial rule, the Philippines had a wide array of ethnic dances from different tribal groups. This was due mainly to the fact that the Philippines is an archipelago thus the different varieties of dance developed. Both Luzon and Visayas, at first, were more akin to tribal movements until the Spanish came. Mindanao represents more of an array of Muslim inspired dances and Spanish influence was limited to the region of Zamboanga.[citation needed]
One famous dance that is well known is called the Tinikling, where a band of Rondalya musicians play along with the percussive beat of the two bamboo poles. It usually starts with men and women acting a scene about "How rural townsfolk mingle". The dancers then graze thru the clashing of the bamboo poles held on opposite sides. The end displays the paired bamboo poles crossing each other. The Muslim version of this where bamboo poles are also used is called the Singkil.[citation needed] Cariñosa is a Hispanic Filipino dance, unofficially considered as the "National Dance of the Philippines". It is a courtship dance which involves a woman holding a fan or a handkerchief, where it plays an instrumental role as it places the couple in romance scenario.[656]
In the Modern and Post-Modern time periods, dances may vary from the delicate ballet up to the more street-oriented styles of breakdancing.[657][658]
Values
As a general description, the distinct value system of Filipinos is rooted primarily in personal alliance systems, especially those based in kinship, obligation, friendship, religion (particularly Christianity), and commercial relationships.[659]
Filipino values are, for the most part, centered around maintaining social harmony, motivated primarily by the desire to be accepted within a group. The main sanction against diverging from these values are the concepts of "Hiya", roughly translated as 'a sense of shame',[660] and "Amor propio" or 'self-esteem'.[661] Social approval, acceptance by a group, and belonging to a group are major concerns. Caring about what others will think, say or do, are strong influences on social behavior among Filipinos.[662]
Other elements of the Filipino value system are optimism about the future, pessimism about present situations and events, concern and care for other people, the existence of friendship and friendliness, the habit of being hospitable, religious nature, respectfulness to self and others, respect for the female members of society, the fear of God, and abhorrence of acts of cheating and thievery.[663][664]
Cuisine
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Philippine_Food.jpg/220px-Philippine_Food.jpg)
Filipino cuisine has evolved over several centuries from its Malayo-Polynesian origins to become a mixed cuisine with Chinese, American, and other Asian influences. The most dominant influence however is Spanish, which has influenced up to 80% of Filipino recipes. Regional variations exist throughout the islands, for example rice is a standard starch in Luzon while cassava is more common in Mindanao.[665] Dishes range from the very simple, like a meal of fried salted fish and rice, to the elaborate, such as the paellas and cocidos created for fiestas. Popular dishes include lechón, adobo, sinigang, kare-kare, tapa, crispy pata, pancit, lumpia, and halo-halo. Some common local ingredients used in cooking are calamansi, coconuts, saba (a kind of short wide plantain), mangoes, ube, milkfish, and fish sauce. Filipino taste buds tend to favor robust flavors, but the cuisine is not as spicy as those of its neighbors.[666]
Unlike many Asians, most Filipinos do not eat with chopsticks; they use Western cutlery. However, possibly due to rice being the primary staple food and the popularity of a large number of stews and main dishes with broth in Filipino cuisine, the main pairing of utensils seen at the Filipino dining table is that of spoon and fork, not knife and fork.[667]
The traditional way of eating with the hands known as kamayan (using the hand for bringing food to the mouth)[668] was previously more often seen in the less urbanized areas.[665] However, due to the various Filipino restaurants that introduced Filipino food to people of other nationalities, as well as to Filipino urbanites, kamayan fast became popular.[669][670] This recent trend also sometimes incorporates the "Boodle fight" concept (as popularized and coined by the Philippine Army), wherein banana leaves are used as giant plates on top of which rice portions and Filipino viands are placed all together for a filial, friendly and/or communal kamayan feasting.[671]
Mass media
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Abscbn_broadcast_center.jpg/220px-Abscbn_broadcast_center.jpg)
Philippine media uses mainly Filipino and English, though broadcasting have shifted to Filipino.[405] Other Philippine languages, including various Visayan languages are also used, especially in radio due to its ability to reach remote rural locations that might otherwise not be serviced by other kinds of media.[citation needed] There are large numbers of both radio stations and newspapers. The top three newspapers by nationwide readership as well as credibility[672] are the Philippine Daily Inquirer, Manila Bulletin, and The Philippine Star.[673][674] While freedom of the press is protected by the constitution, the country is very dangerous for journalists.[675][better source needed] As of 2020[update], the dominant television networks were ABS-CBN and GMA, both being free to air.[675] ABS-CBN, at the time the largest network[676] was shut down following a cease and desist order issued by the National Telecommunications Commission on May 5, 2020, a day after the expiration of the network's franchise.[677] Prior to this move, Duterte accused ABS-CBN of being biased against his administration and vowed to block the renewal of their franchise. However, critics of the Duterte administration, human rights groups, and media unions said the shutdown of ABS-CBN was an attack on press freedom.[676][678] On July 10, 2020, the House of Representatives declined a renewal of ABS-CBN's TV and radio franchise, voted 70–11.[676]
TV, the Internet,[679] and social media, particularly Facebook, remain the top source of news and information for majority of Filipinos as newspaper readership continues to decline.[680][681] English broadsheets are popular among executives, professionals and students.[682] Cheaper Tagalog tabloids, which feature crime, sex, gossips and gore, saw a rise in the 1990s, and tend to be popular among the masses, particularly in Manila.[682][683][684]
Cinema
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Lav_Diaz.jpg/220px-Lav_Diaz.jpg)
Philippine cinema has a long history and is popular domestically, but has faced increasing competition from American, Asian and European films. Critically acclaimed directors and actors include Lino Brocka and Nora Aunor for films like Maynila: Sa mga Kuko ng Liwanag (Manila: In the Claws of Light)[citation needed] and Himala (Miracle).[685][686][687] Moving pictures were first shown in the Philippines on January 1, 1897.[688] All films were all in Spanish since Philippine cinema was first introduced during the final years of the Spanish era of the country. Antonio Ramos was the first known movie producer.[689][690] Meanwhile, Jose Nepomuceno was dubbed as the "Father of Philippine Movies".[691] His work marked the start of the local production of movies. Production companies remained small during the era of silent film, but 1933 saw the emergence of sound films and the arrival of the first significant production company. The postwar 1940s and the 1950s are regarded as a high point for Philippine cinema.[172]
During the 1960s, James Bond movies, bomba (soft porn) pictures and an era of musical films, produced mostly by Sampaguita Pictures, dominated the cinema. The second golden age occurred from 1970s to early 1980s. It was during this era that filmmakers ceased to produce pictures in black and white.[citation needed] The growing dominance of Hollywood films and the cost of production has severely reduced local filmmaking.[692][693] Nonetheless, some local films continue to find success.[694][695]
Sports
Various sports and pastimes are popular in the Philippines including basketball, boxing, volleyball, football (soccer), American football, both codes of Rugby football, badminton, karate, taekwondo, billiards, ten-pin bowling, chess, and sipa. Motocross, cycling, and mountaineering are also becoming popular.[citation needed] Basketball is played at both amateur and professional levels and is considered to be the most popular sport in the Philippines.[696] In 2010, Manny Pacquiao was named "Fighter of the Decade" for the 2000s by the Boxing Writers Association of America.[697] The national martial art and sport of the country is Arnis.[698][699] Beginning in 1924, the Philippines has competed in every Summer Olympic Games, except when they participated in the American-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics.[700][701] The Philippines is also the first tropical nation to compete at the Winter Olympic Games debuting in the 1972 edition.[702][703]
Games
Traditional Philippine games such as luksung baka, patintero,[704] piko, and tumbang preso are played primarily as children's games among the youth.[705][706][707] Sabong or cockfighting is another popular entertainment especially among Filipino men, and was documented by Magellan's voyage as a pastime in the kingdom of Taytay.[708] The yo-yo, a popular toy in the Philippines, was introduced in its modern form by Pedro Flores[709] with its name coming from the Ilocano language.[710]
See also
Notes
- ^ In the recognized regional languages of the Philippines:
- Aklan: Republika it Pilipinas
- Bikol: Republika kan Filipinas
- Cebuano: Republika sa Pilipinas
- Chavacano: República de Filipinas
- Hiligaynon: Republika sang Filipinas
- Ibanag: Republika nat Filipinas
- Ilocano: Republika ti Filipinas
- Ivatan: Republika nu Filipinas
- Kapampangan: Republika ning Filipinas
- Kinaray-a: Republika kang Pilipinas
- Maguindanaon: Republika nu Pilipinas
- Maranao: Republika a Pilipinas
- Pangasinan: Republika na Filipinas
- Sambal: Republika nin Pilipinas
- Surigaonon: Republika nan Pilipinas
- Tausug: Republika sin Pilipinas
- Waray: Republika han Pilipinas
In the recognized optional languages of the Philippines:
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- ^ Lim, Benito ed. Asian Studies. Quezon City: Asian Center, 1997. 57-68
- ^ The Filipino Moving Onward 5' 2007 Ed. Rex Bookstore, Inc. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-971-23-4154-0.
- ^ Scott, William (1984). Prehispanic Source Materials: For the Study of Philippine History (revised ed.). Quezon City: New Day Publishers. p. 66. ISBN 9711002264.
- ^ Pigafetta, Antonio (1969) [1524]. First Voyage Round the World. Translated by Robertson, J.A. Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild.
- ^ Barros, Joao de, Decada terciera de Asia de Ioano de Barros dos feitos que os Portugueses fezarao no descubrimiento dos mares e terras de Oriente [1628], Lisbon, 1777, courtesy of William Henry Scott, Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society, Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1994, page 194.
- ^ Pigafetta, Antonio (1969) [1524]. "First voyage around the world". Translated by J.A. Robertson. Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild.
- ^ Philippine History. Rex Bookstore, Inc. 2004. p. 46. ISBN 9789712339349.
- ^ Postma, Antoon. (1992). The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription: Text and Commentary. Philippine Studies vol. 40, no. 2:183-203
- ^ a b c Pinto, Fernao Mendes (1989) [1578]. "The travels of Mendes Pinto" (Document). Translated by Rebecca Catz. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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ignored (help) - ^ "Quest of the Dragon and Bird Clan; The Golden Age (Volume III)" -Lungshanoid (Glossary)- By Paul Kekai Manansala
- ^ Glover, Ian; Bellwood, Peter; Bellwood, Peter S.; Glover, Dr (2004). Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History. Psychology Press. p. 267. ISBN 978-0-415-29777-6. Retrieved August 10, 2020.
- ^ Scott 1994.
- ^ a b c d e f Jocano, F. Landa (2001). Filipino Prehistory: Rediscovering Precolonial Heritage. Quezon City: Punlad Research House, Inc. ISBN 978-971-622-006-3.[page needed]
- ^ Osborne, Milton (2004). Southeast Asia: An Introductory History (Ninth ed.). Australia: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74114-448-2.[page needed]
- ^ McAmis, Robert Day. (2002). Malay Muslims: The History and Challenge of Resurgent Islam in Southeast Asia. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 18–24, 53–61. ISBN 0-8028-4945-8. Retrieved January 7, 2010.
- ^ a b Ring, Trudy; Robert M. Salkin; Sharon La Boda (1996). International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania. Taylor & Francis. pp. 565–569. ISBN 978-1-884964-04-6. Retrieved January 7, 2010.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|last-author-amp=
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suggested) (help) - ^ Polities and Sultanates in the 10th and 16th Century Philippines, Historical Atlas of the Republic, Manila: The Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office, 2016. p. 64."
- ^ Carley, Michael (November 4, 2013) [2001]. "7". Urban Development and Civil Society: The Role of Communities in Sustainable Cities. Routledge. p. 108. ISBN 9781134200504. Retrieved September 11, 2020.
Each boat carried a large family group, and the master of the boat retained power as leader, or datu, of the village established by his family. This form of village social organization can be found as early as the 13th century in Panay, Bohol, Cebu, Samar and Leyte in the Visayas, and in Batangas, Pampanga and Tondo in Luzon. Evidence suggests a considerable degree of independence as small city-states with their heads known as datu, rajah or sultan.
- ^ Tan, Samuel K. (2008). A History of the Philippines. UP Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-971-542-568-1. Retrieved August 10, 2020.
- ^ Bowring, John (1875) [1875]. "1". Travels in the Philippines. Chapman and Hall, London. p. 18. Retrieved September 11, 2020.
Credit is certainly due to Spain for having bettered the condition of a people who, though comparatively highly civilized, yet being continually distracted by petty wars, had sunk into a disordered and uncultivated state.
- ^ Newson, Linda (2009) [2009]. "2". Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines. University of Hawaii Press. p. 18. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824832728.001.0001. ISBN 9780824832728. Retrieved September 11, 2020.
Given the significance of the size and distribution of the population to the spread of diseases and their ability to become endemic, it is worth commenting briefly on the physical and human geography of the Philippines. The hot and humid tropical climate would have generally favored the propagation of many diseases, especially water-borne infections, though there might be regional or seasonal variations in climate that might affect the incidence of some diseases. In general, however, the fact that the Philippines comprise some seven thousand islands, some of which are uninhabited even today, would have discouraged the spread of infections, as would the low population density.
- ^ a b https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/apr27/magellan-killed-philippine-skirmish/#:~:text=On%20April%2027%2C%201521%2C%20Portuguese,island%20of%20Cebu%20weeks%20earlier.
- ^ Dacumos, Rory (2015). Philippine Colonial Educational System. Nagoya University.
- ^ Zaide, Gregorio F.; Sonia M. Zaide (2004). Philippine History and Government (6th ed.). All-Nations Publishing Company.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|lastauthoramp=
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suggested) (help)[page needed] - ^ Marciano R. De Borja (2005). Basques in the Philippines. University of Nevada Press. p. [page needed]. ISBN 978-0-87417-590-5.
- ^ "History of Cebu". Cebu City Tour. Retrieved February 22, 2013.
- ^ a b Aguilar-Cariño, Ma. Luisa (1994). "The Igorot as Other: Four Discourses from the Colonial Period". Philippine Studies. 42 (2): 194–209. JSTOR 42633435 – via JSTOR.
- ^ Fernando A. Santiago Jr. (2006). "Isang Maikling Kasaysayan ng Pandacan, Maynila 1589–1898". Malay. 19 (2): 70–87. Retrieved July 18, 2008.
{{cite journal}}
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(help)|issue=
- ^ "The Philippines Isn't What It Used to Be". SPOT.PH.
- ^ Andrade, Tonio (2005). How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish and Han colonialization in the Seventeenth Century. Columbia University Press.
- ^ Wigboldus, J. S. (1987). A History of the Minahasa c. 1615-1680. Archipel.
- ^ Andaya, L. (1993). The World of Maluku: Eastern Indonesia in the Early Modern Period.
- ^ Hawkley, Ethan (2014). "Reviving the Reconquista in Southeast Asia: Moros and the Making of the Philippines, 1565–1662". Journal of World History. 25 (2–3). University of Hawai'i Press: 288. doi:10.1353/jwh.2014.0014. S2CID 143692647.
The early modern revival of the Reconquista in the Philippines had a profound effect on the islands, one that is still being felt today. As described above, the Spanish Reconquista served to unify Christians against a common Moro enemy, helping to bring together Castilian, Catalan, Galician, and Basque peoples into a single political unit: Spain. In precolonial times, the Philippine islands were a divided and unspecified part of the Malay archipelago, one inhabited by dozens of ethnolinguistic groups, residing in countless independent villages, strewn across thousands of islands. By the end of the seventeenth century, however, a dramatic change had happened in the archipelago. A multiethnic community had come together to form the colonial beginnings of a someday nation: the Philippines. The powerful influence of Christian-Moro antagonisms on the formation of the early Philippines remains evident more than four hundred years later, as the Philippine national government continues to grapple with Moro separatists groups, even in 2013.
- ^ Guillermo, Artemio (2012) [2012]. Historical Dictionary of the Philippines. The Scarecrow Press Inc. p. 374. ISBN 9780810875111. Retrieved September 11, 2020.
To pursue their mission of conquest, the Spaniards dealt individually with each settlement or village and with each province or island until the entire Philippine archipelago was brought under imperial control. They saw to it that the people remained divided or compartmentalized and with the minimum of contact or communication. The Spaniards adopted the policy of divide et impera (divide and conquer).
- ^ de Marquina, Esteban (1903). Blair, Emma Helen; Robertson, James Alexander (eds.). Conspiracy Against the Spaniards: Testimony in certain investigations made by Doctor Santiago de Vera, president of the Philipinas, May-July 1589. Vol. 7. Ohio, Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company. pp. 86–103.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ Sta. Romana, Elpidio R., and Ricardo T. Jose. "Never Imagine Yourself to be Otherwise…: Filipino Image of Japan Over the Centuries" Asian Studies: 65-94. http://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-29-1991/staromanajose.pdf
- ^ Martinez, Manuel F. Assassinations & conspiracies : from Rajah Humabon to Imelda Marcos. Manila: Anvil Publishing, 2002.
- ^ Llobet, Ruth de (June 23, 2015). "The Philippines. A mountain of difference: The Lumad in early colonial Mindanao By Oona Paredes Ithaca: Southeast Asia Program Publications, Cornell University, 2013. Pp. 195. Maps, Appendices, Notes, Bibliography, Index". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 46 (2): 332–334. doi:10.1017/S0022463415000211 – via Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Acabado, Stephen (March 1, 2017). "The Archaeology of Pericolonialism: Responses of the "Unconquered" to Spanish Conquest and Colonialism in Ifugao, Philippines". International Journal of Historical Archaeology. 21 (1): 1–26. doi:10.1007/s10761-016-0342-9. S2CID 147472482 – via Springer Link.
- ^ Gutierrez (龙彼得), Pedro Luengo. "DISSOLUTION OF MANILA-MEXICO ARCHITECTURAL CONNECTIONS BETWEEN 1785 AND 1810" – via www.academia.edu.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ (Re Bicol) "Astilleros: the Spanish shipyards of Sorsogon" (PDF). Mary Jane Louise A. Bolunia. Archaeology Division, National Museum of the Philippines. Retrieved October 26, 2015. Page 1 - Abstract: "When the Spanish colonizers reached Philippine soils, one of the earliest places they occupied is the tip of southern Luzon including the San Bernardino Strait. The whole area was known as Ambos Camarines and Albay. At present, it is the Bicol Region, comprising six provinces. As one of the earliest Spanish-occupied areas, it was exposed to Spanish activities like building of churches, government halls and shipbuilding. Ancient shipyards called astilleros are found in Bicol. These were used for construction and repair of the galleons that plied the Manila-Acapulco trade. This present archaeological study looks into the shipyards of Sorsogon where three shipyards were documented"
- ^ (Re Cavite) William J. McCarthy (December 1, 1995). "The Yards at Cavite: Shipbuilding in the Early Colonial Philippines". International Journal of Maratime History. 7 (2): 149–162. doi:10.1177/084387149500700208. S2CID 163709949.
- ^ Kane, Herb Kawainui (1996). "The Manila Galleons". In Bob Dye (ed.). Hawaiʻ Chronicles: Island History from the Pages of Honolulu Magazine. Vol. I. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. pp. 25–32. ISBN 978-0-8248-1829-6.
- ^ Russell, S.D. (1999) "Christianity in the Philippines". Retrieved April 2, 2013.[full citation needed]
- ^ Limos, Mario Alvaro (March 18, 2019). "The Fall of the Babaylan". Esquire. Retrieved July 12, 2019.
- ^ Nadeau, Kathy (1993). "Christianity and the Transformation of Philippine Lowland Life: A Critique of Rafael". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society. 21 (1): 25–38. JSTOR 29792111 – via JSTOR.
- ^ a b Cano, Glòria (2008). "Evidence for the Deliberate Distortion of the Spanish Philippine Colonial Historical Record in "The Philippine Islands 1493-1898"". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 39 (1): 1–30. doi:10.1017/S0022463408000015. JSTOR 20071868 – via JSTOR.
- ^ Aquino, Belinda A. (1993). "Rethinking Magellan and Rediscovering the Philippines". In Aquino, Belinda A.; Alegado, Dean T. (eds.). The Age of Discovery: Impact on Philippine Culture and Society (PDF) (2 ed.). University of Hawaii at Manoa. p. 3.
- ^ "The City of God: Churches, Convents and Monasteries". Discovering Philippines. Retrieved on July 6, 2011.[full citation needed]
- ^ Abinales, Patricio N.; Amoroso, Donna J. (2017). State and Society in the Philippines. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 62. ISBN 978-1-5381-0395-1.
- ^ "Forgotten history? The polistas of the Galleon Trade". Rappler.
- ^ Rene Javellana, S.J. (1997). "Fortress of Empire".[full citation needed]
- ^ a b Schwartz, Karl (1971). "Filipino Education and Spanish Colonialism: Toward an Autonomous Perspective". Comparative Education Review. 15 (2): 202–218. doi:10.1086/445531. JSTOR 1186730 – via JSTOR.
- ^ Dolan 1991, Education.[full citation needed]
- ^ Tatiana Seijas, Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians. New York: Cambridge University Press 2014.
- ^ Luengo, Josemaria Salutan. A History of the Manila-Acapulco Slave Trade, 1565-1815. Tubigon, Bohol: Mater Dei Publications 1996.
- ^ Scott, William Henry. Slavery in the Spanish Philippines. Manila: De La Salle University Press 1991.
- ^ Lahmeyer, Jan (1996). "The Philippines: historical demographic data of the whole country". Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved July 19, 2003.[better source needed]
- ^ "Censos de Cúba, Puerto Rico, Filipinas y España. Estudio de su relación". Voz de Galicia. 1898. Retrieved December 12, 2010.[verification needed]
- ^ Scott, William (1974). The Discovery of the Igorots. Quezon City: New Day Publishers. p. 15-16. ISBN 9711000873.
- ^ Fluckiger, Steven James (October 2017). "Caquenga and Feminine Social Power in the Philippines". World History Connected. 14 (3). Retrieved September 3, 2018.
- ^ "Abatan River Cruise: A travel through history". Bohol Chronicle. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007.
- ^ Readings From Bohol's History www.aenet.org, Source: Philippine Political and Cultural History. Volume I. Gregorio F. Zaide Retrieved 15 November 2006.
- ^ "5 Filipino heroines who changed Philippine history". cnn.
- ^ Palanco, Fernando; Arcilla, Jose S. (2002). "Diego Silang's Revolt: A New Approach". Philippine Studies. 50 (4): 512–537. JSTOR 42634482 – via JSTOR.
- ^ ""The Center of a Circle": Manila's Trade with East and Southeast Asia at the Turn of the Sixteenth Century By Ubaldo IACCARINO" (PDF).
- ^ Miguel de Loarca (June, 1582). Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas. Arevalo.
- ^ Perkinson, J. W. (2015). Political Spirituality in an Age of Eco-Apocalypse: Communication and Struggle Across Species, Cultures, and Religions. Palgrave Macmillan.
- ^ Diamonon, V. D. (1919). A study of the Philippine government during the Spanish regime. State University of Iowa.
- ^ PALANCO, FERNANDO (2010). "The Tagalog Revolts of 1745 According to Spanish Primary Sources". Philippine Studies. 58 (1/2): 45–77. JSTOR 42632048 – via JSTOR.
- ^ Pearson, M. N. (1969). "The Spanish 'Impact' on the Philippines, 1565-1770". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 12 (2): 165–186. doi:10.2307/3596057. JSTOR 3596057 – via JSTOR.
- ^ Dolan 1991, The Early Spanish Period.[full citation needed]
- ^ Novio, Eunice Barbara C. (May 28, 2020). "UCLA archeologist busts myth of '2,000-year-old rice terraces'". INQUIRER.net USA.
- ^
Mehl, Eva Maria (2016). "Chapter 6 - Unruly Mexicans in Manila". Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World From Mexico to the Philippines, 1765–1811. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781316480120.007. ISBN 9781316480120.
In Governor Anda y Salazar's opinion, an important part of the problem of vagrancy was the fact that Mexicans and Spanish disbanded after finishing their military or prison terms "all over the islands, even the most distant, looking for subsistence.~CSIC riel 208 leg.14
- ^ Garcıa de los Arcos, "Grupos etnicos," ´ 65–66 Garcia de los Arcos, Maria Fernanda (1999). "Grupos éthnicos y Clases sociales en las Filipinas de Finales del Siglo XVIII". Retrieved August 19, 2020.
- ^
Mehl, Eva Maria (2016). "Chapter 1 - Intertwined Histories in the Pacific". Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World From Mexico to the Philippines, 1765–1811. Cambridge University Press. p. 246. doi:10.1017/CBO9781316480120.007. ISBN 9781316480120.
The military organization of Manila might have depended to some degreee on non-European groups, but colonial authorities measured a successful imperial policy of defense on the amount of European and American recruits that could be accounted for in the military forces.~CSIC ser. Consultas riel 301 leg.8 (1794)
- ^ "Filipino-Mexican-Central-and-South American Connection, Tales of Two Sisters: Manila and Mexico". June 21, 1997. Retrieved August 18, 2020.
Tomás de Comyn, general manager of the Compañia Real de Filipinas, in 1810 estimated that out of a total population of 2,515,406, "the European Spaniards, and Spanish creoles and mestizos do not exceed 4,000 persons of both sexes and all ages, and the distinct castes or modifications known in America under the name of mulatto, quarteroons, etc., although found in the Philippine Islands, are generally confounded in the three classes of pure Indians, Chinese mestizos and Chinese." In other words, the Mexicans who had arrived in the previous century had so intermingled with the local population that distinctions of origin had been forgotten by the 19th century. The Mexicans who came with Legázpi and aboard succeeding vessels had blended with the local residents so well that their country of origin had been erased from memory.
- ^ "The descendants of Mexican mestizos and native Filipinos were numerous but unaccounted for because they were mostly the result of informal liaisons." ~Garcia de los Arcos, Forzados, 238[full citation needed]
- ^ Tatiana Seijas (2014). "The Diversity and Reach of the Manila Slave Market". Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-107-06312-9.
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ignored (|chapter-url=
suggested) (help) - ^ Blair, E., Robertson, J., & Bourne, E. (1903). The Philippine islands, 1493–1803 : explorations by early navigators, descriptions of the islands and their peoples, their history and records of the Catholic missions, as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the political, economic, commercial and religious conditions of those islands from their earliest relations with European nations to the beginning of the nineteenth century. Cleveland, Ohio.[full citation needed]
- ^ Bonialian, 2012[citation not found][full citation needed]
- ^ Cole, Jeffrey A. (1985). The Potosí mita, 1573–1700 : compulsory Indian labor in the Andes. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-8047-1256-9.
- ^ Tracy 1995, pp. 12, 55[citation not found]
- ^ Leebrick, Karl Clayton (2007). The English expedition to Manila and the Philippine Islands in the year 1762. University of California, Berkeley. p. 52.
- ^ Blair, Emma Helen (2008). The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803. BiblioBazaar. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-559-25329-4.
- ^ Tracy, Nicholas (1995). Manila Ransomed. University of Exeter Press. ISBN 0859894266.
- ^ a b c Agoncillo, Teodoro A. (1990). History of the Filipino People (8th ed.). Garotech Publishing. p. 22. ISBN 978-971-8711-06-4.
- ^ Halili, Maria Christine N. (2004). Philippine History. Rex Bookstore. pp. 119–120. ISBN 978-971-23-3934-9.
- ^ de Borja, Marciano R. (2005). Basques in the Philippines. University of Nevada Press. pp. 81–83. ISBN 978-0-87417-590-5.
- ^ Hall, Daniel George Edward (1981). History of South East Asia. Macmillan International Higher Education. p. 757. ISBN 978-1-349-16521-6. Retrieved July 30, 2020.
- ^ Bacareza, Hermógenes E. (2003). The German Connection: A Modern History. Hermogenes E. Bacareza. p. 10. Retrieved July 30, 2020.
- ^ Barrows, David (2014). "A History of the Philippines". 1: 179.
Within the walls, there were some six hundred houses of a private nature, most of them built of stone and tile, and an equal number outside in the suburbs, or arrabales, all occupied by Spaniards (todos son vivienda y poblacion de los Españoles). This gives some twelve hundred Spanish families or establishments, exclusive of the religious, who in Manila numbered at least one hundred and fifty, the garrison, at certain times, about four hundred trained Spanish soldiers who had seen service in Holland and the Low Countries, and the official classes.
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(help)[full citation needed] - ^ Hedman, Eva-Lotta; Sidel, John (2005). Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century: Colonial Legacies, Post-Colonial Trajectories. Routledge. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-134-75421-2. Retrieved July 30, 2020.
- ^ "Officers in the army of the Philippines were almost totally composed of Americans," observed the Spanish historian José Montero y Vidal. "They received in great disgust the arrival of peninsular officers as reinforcements, partly because they supposed they would be shoved aside in the promotions and partly because of racial antagonisms."[full citation needed]
- ^ Steinberg, David Joel (2018). "Chapter - 3 A SINGULAR AND A PLURAL FOLK". THE PHILIPPINES A Singular and a Plural Place. Routledge. p. 47. doi:10.4324/9780429494383. ISBN 978-0-8133-3755-5.
The cultural identity of the mestizos was challenged as they became increasingly aware that they were true members of neither the indio nor the Chinese community. Increasingly powerful but adrift, they linked with the Spanish mestizos, who were also being challenged because after the Latin American revolutions broke the Spanish Empire, many of the settlers from the New World, Caucasian Creoles born in Mexico or Peru, became suspect in the eyes of the Iberian Spanish. The Spanish Empire had lost its universality.
- ^ "Filipinos in Mexican history". Archived from the original on December 9, 2012. Retrieved August 13, 2019.
- ^ Delgado de Cantú, Gloria M. (2006). Historia de México. México, D. F.: Pearson Educación. ISBN 970-26-0797-3.[full citation needed]
- ^ González Davíla Amado. Geografía del Estado de Guerrero y síntesis histórica 1959. México D.F.; ed. Quetzalcóatl.[full citation needed]
- ^ Hosillos, Lucila V. (September 18, 2006). Interactive Vernacular, National Literature: Magdalena G. Jalandoni's Juanita Cruz as Constituent of Filipino National Literature. UP Press. ISBN 9789715425216 – via Google Books.
- ^ Warren, James Francis (2007). The Sulu Zone, 1768-1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State. NUS Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-9971-69-386-2. Retrieved August 10, 2020.
- ^ Spain (1893). Colección de los tratados, convenios y documentos internacionales celebrados por nuestros gobiernos con los estados extranjeros desde el reinado de Doña Isabel II. hasta nuestros días. Acompañados de notas histórico-críticas sobre su negociación y cumplimiento y cotejados con los textos originales... (in Spanish). pp. 120–123.
- ^ see text of treaty (in Spanish),[148]
- ^ Keat Gin Ooi (January 1, 2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1163–. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2.
- ^ International Court of Justice (2003). Summaries of Judgments, Advisory Opinions, and Orders of the International Court of Justice, 1997-2002. United Nations Publications. pp. 205–268. ISBN 978-92-1-133541-5.
- ^ Nuguid, Nati. (1972). "The Cavite Mutiny". in Mary R. Tagle. 12 Events that Have Influenced Philippine History. [Manila]: National Media Production Center. Retrieved December 20, 2009 from StuartXchange Website.
- ^ Joaquin, Nick. A Question of Heroes.[full citation needed]
- ^ a b Ocampo, Ambeth (1999). Rizal Without the Overcoat (Expanded ed.). Pasig City: Anvil Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-971-27-0920-3.[page needed]
- ^ ARCILLA, JOSE S. (1991). "The Enlightenment and the Philippine Revolution". Philippine Studies. 39 (3): 358–373. JSTOR 42633263 – via JSTOR.
- ^ Halili, M. c (2004). Philippine History. Rex Bookstore, Inc. p. 137. ISBN 978-971-23-3934-9. Retrieved July 29, 2020.
- ^ Jesus, Totel V. de (February 23, 2019). "Aguinaldo's 'confession' on Bonifacio kill order up for auction". ABS-CBN News.
- ^ Halstead, M (1898). "The Story of the Philippines". Nature. 70 (1811): 248–249. Bibcode:1904Natur..70..248T. doi:10.1038/070248a0.
- ^ Linn, Brian McAllister (2000). The Philippine War, 1899–1902. University Press of Kansas. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-0-7006-1225-3.
- ^ Burdeos, Ray L. (2008). Filipinos in the U.S. Navy & Coast Guard During the Vietnam War. AuthorHouse. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-4343-6141-7.
- ^ Gates, John M. (November 2002). "The Pacification of the Philippines". The U.S. Army and Irregular Warfare.
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requires|url=
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ignored (|chapter-url=
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- ^ "History of The Republic of Zamboanga (May 1899 – March 1903)". Zamboanga City, Philippines: Zamboanga.com. July 18, 2009. Archived from the original on December 1, 2010. Retrieved August 13, 2010.
- ^ Miller p. 220; [https://www.pbs.org/crucible/Transcript.txt PBS documentary
- ^ Benjamin R. Beede (August 21, 2013). The War of 1898 and U.S. Interventions, 1898T1934: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-136-74691-8.
By the end of the operation, the estimated 600 Muslims in Bud Daju were wiped out.
- ^ "US atrocities in the Philippines". philstar.com.
- ^ Welch, Richard E. (1974). "American Atrocities in the Philippines: The Indictment and the Response". Pacific Historical Review. 43 (2): 233–253. doi:10.2307/3637551. JSTOR 3637551 – via JSTOR.
- ^ Dyke, E. (2013). [Review of the book Suspended Apocalypse: White Supremacy, Genocide, and the Filipino Condition, by Dylan Rodríguez]. Journal of Asian American Studies 16(1), 131-133. doi:10.1353/jaas.2013.0000.
- ^ Chem, A. (2016). The Filipino Genocide. Historical Perspective: Santa Clara University Undergraduate Journal of History, Series II.
- ^ Jim Zwick (March 4, 1996). "Remembering St. Louis, 1904: A World on Display and Bontoc Eulogy". Syracuse University. Retrieved May 25, 2007.
- ^ "The Passions of Suzie Wong Revisited, by Rev. Sequoyah Ade". Aboriginal Intelligence. January 4, 2004. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007.
- ^ a b Armes, Roy. "Third World Film Making and the West", p.152. University of California Press, 1987. Retrieved on January 9, 2011.
- ^ "The Role of José Nepomuceno in the Philippine Society: What language did his silent film speaks?". Stockholm University Publications. Retrieved on January 28, 2014.
- ^ Deocamp, N. (2011). Film: American Influences on Philippine Cinema. Anvil Publishing.
- ^ Martin, Isabel Pefianco (2001). "American Education and Philippine Literature". Philippine Studies. 49 (1): 113–122. JSTOR 42634438 – via JSTOR.
- ^ Moore, Charles (1921). "Daniel H. Burnham: Planner of Cities". Houghton Mifflin and Co., Boston and New York.[full citation needed]
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- ^ Molina, Antonio. The Philippines: Through the centuries. Manila: University of Sto. Tomas Cooperative, 1961. Print.[full citation needed]
- ^ Manapat, Carlos, et al. Economics, Taxation, and Agrarian Reform. Quezon City: C&E Pub., 2010.Print.[full citation needed]
- ^ CNN, Madison Park. "How the Philippines saved 1,200 Jews during Holocaust". CNN.
{{cite web}}
:|last=
has generic name (help) - ^ Kramer, Paul A. (Paul Alexander), 1968- (2006). The blood of government : race, empire, the United States, & the Philippines. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 343–344. ISBN 978-0-8078-7717-3. OCLC 80904288.
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There are over 137 genera and about 998 species of orchids so far recorded for the archipelago. This represents about 10% of the total flora of the Philippines. The Philippines ranks second to New Guinea in occurrence of endemic species in the Malesian region.
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- ^ a b "Climate of the Philippines". Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration. Archived from the original on April 18, 2018. Retrieved July 24, 2020.
Based on the average of all weather stations in the Philippines, excluding Baguio, the mean annual temperature is 26.6o C. The coolest months fall in January with a mean temperature of 25.5oC while the warmest month occurs in May with a mean temperature of 28.3oC. Latitude is an insignificant factor in the variation of temperature while altitude shows greater contrast in temperature. Thus, the mean annual temperature of Baguio with an elevation of 1,500 meters is 18.3oC.
- ^ a b Library of Congress – Federal Research Division. (March 2006). Country Profile: Philippines. Retrieved July 30, 2020. Archived February 14, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Chong, Kee-Chai; Ian R. Smith; Maura S. Lizarondo (1982). "III. The transformation sub-system: cultivation to market size in fishponds". Economics of the Philippine Milkfish Resource System. The United Nations University. ISBN 978-92-808-0346-4. Archived from the original on July 19, 2011. Retrieved July 4, 2020.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|last-author-amp=
ignored (|name-list-style=
suggested) (help) - ^ Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) (January 2009). "Member Report to the ESCAP/WMO Typhoon Committee, 41st Session" (PDF): 4. Retrieved December 17, 2009.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - ^ Monthly Typhoon Tracking Charts. (2010). Retrieved April 24, 2010 from the National Institute of Informatics, Kitamoto Laboratory, Digital Typhoon Website.
- ^ Henderson, Faye. "Tropical Cyclone Disasters in the Philippines A Listing of Major Typhoons by Month Through 1979" (PDF). Agency for International Development. p. 11. Retrieved July 25, 2020.
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- ^ Overland, Indra et al. (2017) Impact of Climate Change on ASEAN International Affairs: Risk and Opportunity Multiplier, Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI) and Myanmar Institute of International and Strategic Studies (MISIS). Page V.
- ^ N/A, N/A. "107 MILLION FILIPINOS BY END-2018". POPCOM. 107 MILLION FILIPINOS BY END-2018. Archived from the original on August 9, 2018. Retrieved January 4, 2018.
{{cite news}}
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- ^ a b Demographia. (June 2020). Demographia World Urban Areas (World Agglomerations) Population & Projections (Edition 16). Retrieved July 15, 2020. Page 23.
- ^ a b "Urban Population in the Philippines (Results of the 2015 Census of Population)". Philippine Statistics Authority. March 21, 2019. Retrieved March 31, 2019.
- ^ Republic of the Philippines. National Statistical Coordination Board. (July 2009). 2008 Gross Regional Domestic Product – Levels of GRDP Archived November 14, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved April 4, 2010.
- ^ Hawksworth, John; Thomas Hoehn; Anmol Tiwari. "Global City GDP Rankings 2008–2025". UK Economic Outlook November 2009. PricewaterhouseCoopers. p. 20. Archived from the original on May 31, 2013. Retrieved November 20, 2009.
{{cite web}}
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ignored (|name-list-style=
suggested) (help) - ^ "2018 Philippine Statistical Yearbook" (PDF). psa.gov.ph. 2018.
- ^ "Philippines". (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved December 18, 2009 from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
- ^ a b c Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). (2015)Ethnologue: Languages of the World (18th ed.). Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. Retrieved April 13, 2015.
- ^ Dolan, Ronald E. (Ed.). (1991). "Ethnicity, Regionalism, and Language". Philippines: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. Retrieved April 8, 2010 from Country Studies US Website.
- ^ Flannery, Tim (2002). The Future Eaters: An Ecological History of the Australasian Lands and People. Grove Press. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-8021-3943-6. Retrieved July 26, 2020.
- ^ Extinct humanoid species may have lived in PHL, gmanetwork.com, Published August 31, 2012 3:48pm
- ^ "Denisova Admixture and the First Modern Human Dispersals into Southeast Asia and Oceania". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 89 (4): 516–528. 2011. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.09.005. PMC 3188841. PMID 21944045. Retrieved July 16, 2020.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|authors=
ignored (help) - ^ Capelli; Christian; James F. Wilson; Martin Richards; Michael P.H. Stumpf; Fiona Gratrix; Stephen Oppenheimer; Peter Underhill; Ko, Tsang-Ming (2001). "A Predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples of Insular South Asia and Oceania" (PDF). American Journal of Human Genetics. 68 (2): 432–443. doi:10.1086/318205. PMC 1235276. PMID 11170891. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 11, 2011. Retrieved December 18, 2009.
- ^ Soares, PA; Trejaut, JA; Rito, T; Cavadas, B; Hill, C; Eng, KK; Mormina, M; Brandão, A; Fraser, RM; Wang, TY; Loo, JH; Snell, C; Ko, TM; Amorim, A; Pala, M; Macaulay, V; Bulbeck, D; Wilson, JF; Gusmão, L; Pereira, L; Oppenheimer, S; Lin, M; Richards, MB (2016). "Resolving the ancestry of Austronesian-speaking populations". Hum Genet. 135 (3): 309–26. doi:10.1007/s00439-015-1620-z. PMC 4757630. PMID 26781090. The final component (dark blue in Fig. 3b) has a high frequency in South China (Fig. 2b) and is also seen in Taiwan at ~25–30 %, in the Philippines at ~20–30 % (except in one location which is almost zero) and across Indonesia/Malaysia at 1–10 %, declining overall from Taiwan within Austronesian-speaking populations.
- ^ "Self-identified East Asian nationalities correlated with genetic clustering, consistent with extensive endogamy. Individuals of mixed East Asian-European genetic ancestry were easily identified; we also observed a modest amount of European genetic ancestry in individuals self-identified as Filipinos". Genetics Online. Institute for Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco: 1. 2015.
- ^ "A predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples of Insular Southeast Asia and Oceania" (PDF). Stanford University. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 14, 2010.
- ^ Go, Matthew C. (January 15, 2018). "An Admixture Approach to Trihybrid Ancestry Variation in the Philippines with Implications for Forensic Anthropology". Human Biology. 232 (3): 178. doi:10.13110/humanbiology.90.3.01. Retrieved September 11, 2020.
Filipinos appear considerably admixed with respect to the other Asian population samples, carrying on average less Asian ancestry (71%) than our Korean (99%), Japanese (96%), Thai (93%), and Vietnamese (84%) reference samples. We also revealed substructure in our Filipino sample, showing that the patterns of ancestry vary within the Philippines—that is, between the four diffferently sourced Filipino samples. Mean estimates of Asian (76%) and European (7%) ancestry are greatest for the cemetery sample of forensic signifijicance from Manila.
- ^ Mawson, Stephanie J. (June 15, 2016). "Convicts or Conquistadores? Spanish Soldiers in the Seventeenth-Century Pacific". Past & Present. 232. Oxford Academic: 87–125. doi:10.1093/pastj/gtw008. Retrieved July 28, 2020.
- ^ Nandar, Yukyi (August 2017). CRANIOMETRIC VARIATION OF MODERN ASIAN AND HISPANIC INDIVIDUALS USING MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS (MSc). Texas State University. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.16261.24806.
[Page 20]Some misclassifications were observed between Philippines and Mexico. This is the only instance in which an Asian group misclassified as Hispanic, and vice versa. One individual in the Philippines group misclassified as Mexican, while three individuals in the Mexico group misclassified as Filipino. Further, two individuals from the Mexico group misclassified as North Japanese. However, none of the individuals from North Japan misclassified as Mexican.[Page 34] Figure 4-(Phenotypical measurements cluster Filipinos with Guatemalans, Mexicans and North Japanese rather than fellow Asians from Thailand, Vietnam and Hong Kong) [Page 40] Moreover, the Asian male group that both Mexican and Guatemalan males most misclassify as is Philippines
- ^ Wong, Kwok-Chu (1999). The Chinese in the Philippine Economy, 1898-1941. Ateneo University Press. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-971-550-323-5. Retrieved July 25, 2020.
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- ^ "The ethnic Chinese variable in domestic and foreign policies in Malaysia and Indonesia" (PDF). Retrieved July 16, 2020.
- ^ Cooper, Matthew (November 15, 2013). "Why the Philippines Is America's Forgotten Colony". National Journal. Retrieved January 28, 2015.
c. At the same time, person-to-person contacts are widespread: Some 600,000 Americans live in the Philippines and there are 3 million Filipino-Americans, many of whom are devoting themselves to typhoon relief.
- ^ "200,000–250,000 or More Military Filipino Amerasians Alive Today in Republic of the Philippines according to USA-RP Joint Research Paper Finding" (PDF). Amerasian Research Network, Ltd. (Press release). November 5, 2012. Retrieved July 11, 2016.
Kutschera, P.C.; Caputi, Marie A. (October 2012). "The Case for Categorization of Military Filipino Amerasians as Diaspora" (PDF). 9th International Conference On the Philippines, Michigan State University, E. Lansing, MI. Retrieved July 11, 2016. - ^ Delfin, Fredercik (June 12, 2013). "Complete mtDNA genomes of Filipino ethnolinguistic groups: a melting pot of recent and ancient lineages in the Asia-Pacific regio". European Journal of Human Genetics. 22 (2): 228–237. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2013.122. PMC 3895641. PMID 23756438.
Indian influence and possibly haplogroups M52'58 and M52a were brought to the Philippines as early as the fifth century AD. However, Indian influence through these trade empires were indirect and mainly commercial; moreover, other Southeast Asian groups served as filters that diluted and/or enriched any Indian influence that reached the Philippines
- ^ Rawashdeh, Saeb (October 11, 2016). "Arab world's ancient links to Philippines forged through trade, migration and Islam — ambassador". The Jordan Times. Retrieved September 11, 2020.
In the case of the Philippines, the ancient Hadrami migration found its way from Islamised areas in the south towards Sulu, the southwestern archipelagic region of the Philippines," she said, adding that the Hadramis settled in Cotabato, Maguindao, Zamboanga, Davao and Bukidnon. An estimated 2 per cent of Filipinos can claim Arab ancestry, the ambassador noted.
. - ^ Terpstra, Nicholas (2019). Global Reformations: Transforming Early Modern Religions, Societies, and Cultures. Routledge. pp. PT64. ISBN 978-0-429-67825-7. Retrieved July 25, 2020.
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- ^ Go MC, Jones AR, Algee-Hewitt B, Dudzik B, Hughes C (2019). "Classification Trends among Contemporary Filipino Crania Using Fordisc 3.1". Human Biology. 2 (4). University of Florida Press: 1–11. doi:10.5744/fa.2019.1005. Retrieved September 13, 2020.
[Page 1] ABSTRACT: Filipinos represent a significant contemporary demographic group globally, yet they are underrepresented in the forensic anthropological literature. Given the complex population history of the Philippines, it is important to ensure that traditional methods for assessing the biological profile are appropriate when applied to these peoples. Here we analyze the classification trends of a modern Filipino sample (n = 110) when using the Fordisc 3.1 (FD3) software. We hypothesize that Filipinos represent an admixed population drawn largely from Asian and marginally from European parental gene pools, such that FD3 will classify these individuals morphometrically into reference samples that reflect a range of European admixture, in quantities from small to large. Our results show the greatest classification into Asian reference groups (72.7%), followed by Hispanic (12.7%), Indigenous American (7.3%), African (4.5%), and European (2.7%) groups included in FD3. This general pattern did not change between males and females. Moreover, replacing the raw craniometric values with their shape variables did not significantly alter the trends already observed. These classification trends for Filipino crania provide useful information for casework interpretation in forensic laboratory practice. Our findings can help biological anthropologists to better understand the evolutionary, population historical, and statistical reasons for FD3-generated classifications. The results of our studyindicate that ancestry estimation in forensic anthropology would benefit from population-focused research that gives consideration to histories of colonialism and periods of admixture.
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{{cite book}}
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- ^ a b Zibart, Eve (2001). The Ethnic Food Lover's Companion: Understanding the Cuisines of the World. Menasha Ridge Press. pp. 268, 277. ISBN 978-0-89732-372-7.
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filipino cuisine.
{{cite book}}
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ignored (|name-list-style=
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- ^ Barrios, Joi (July 15, 2014). Tagalog for Beginners: An Introduction to Filipino, the National Language of the Philippines (Downloadable MP3 Audio Included). Tuttle Publishing. p. PT397. ISBN 978-1-4629-1039-7. Retrieved September 3, 2020.
- ^ Alejandro, Reynaldo G. (March 13, 2012). Authentic Recipes from the Philippines. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4629-0533-1. Retrieved September 3, 2020.
- ^ Jr, Simeon Dumdum (June 10, 2012). "The boodle fight". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Archived from the original on November 25, 2013. Retrieved September 4, 2020.
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- ^ Bautista, MA Lourdes S.; Bolton, Kingsley (November 2008). Philippine English: Linguistic and Literary. Hong Kong University Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-962-209-947-0. Retrieved August 29, 2020.
- ^ "Inquirer top newspaper, says poll". Philippine Daily Inquirer. April 7, 2014. Archived from the original on April 8, 2014. Retrieved August 29, 2020.
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- ^ a b c Gutierrez, Jason (July 10, 2020). "Philippine Congress officially shuts down leading broadcaster". The New York Times. Retrieved August 22, 2020.
- ^ Gutierrez, Jason (May 5, 2020). "Leading Philippine Broadcaster, Target of Duterte's Ire, Forced Off the Air". The New York Times. Retrieved August 22, 2020.
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- ^ A bleak storyline for the Filipino film industry. Conde, Carlos H. International Herald Tribune. February 11, 2007. (archived from the original on April 1, 2007)
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- ^ "Angelica calls out fans on 'Tadhana' piracy". ABS-CBN News. February 20, 2015. Retrieved July 25, 2020.
- ^ "'Tadhana' is top grossing local indie film of all time". ABS-CBN News. March 15, 2015. Retrieved July 25, 2020.
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Bibliography
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- Chandler, David P.; Steinberg, David Joel (1987). In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History (revised 2nd ed.). University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1110-5.
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- Dolan, Ronald E. (Ed.). (1991). "Education". Philippines: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. Retrieved December 20, 2009 from Country Studies US Website.
- Dumont, Jean-Paul (1992). Visayan Vignettes: Ethnographic Traces of a Philippine Island. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-16954-5.
- Eur (2002). The Far East and Australasia 2003. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-85743-133-9.
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(help) - Fox, Robert B. (1970). The Tabon Caves: Archaeological Explorations and Excavations on Palawan. National Museum. ASIN B001O7GGNI.
- Friis, Herman Ralph, ed. (1967). The Pacific Basin: A History of Its Geographical Exploration. American Geographical Society.
- Go, Julian; Foster, Anne L. (2003). The American Colonial State in the Philippines: Global Perspectives. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-3099-8.
- Halili, Maria Christine N. (2004). Philippine History. Rex Bookstore. ISBN 978-971-23-3934-9.
- Herbert, Patricia; Milner, Anthony Crothers (1989). South-East Asia: Languages and Literatures : a Select Guide. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1267-6.
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(help) - Hicks, Nigel (2007). The Philippines. New Holland Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84537-663-5.
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(help) - Hirahara, Naomi (2003). Distinguished Asian American Business Leaders. Greenwood Publishing. ISBN 978-1-57356-344-4.
- Kurlansky, Mark (1999). The Basque History of the World. Nueva York: Walker & Company. ISBN 978-0-8027-1349-0.
- Abdul Majid, Harun (2007). Rebellion in Brunei: The 1962 Revolt, Imperialism, Confrontation and Oil. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-423-7.
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(help) - McAmis, Robert Day (2002). Malay Muslims: The History and Challenge of Resurgent Islam in Southeast Asia. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8028-4945-8.
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(help) - Melo Alip, Eufronio (1964). Political and cultural history of the Philippines, Volumes 1–2.
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(help) - Lea, David; Milward, Colette (2001). A Political Chronology of South-East Asia and Oceania. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-85743-117-9.
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(help) - Munoz, Paul Michel (2006). Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet. ISBN 978-981-4155-67-0.
- Osborne, Milton E. (2004). Southeast Asia: An Introductory History (9th ed.). Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74114-448-2.
- Oxford Business Group (2009). The Report: Philippines 2009. Oxford Business Group. ISBN 978-1-902339-12-2.
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has generic name (help) - Price, Michael G. (2002). America at War: the Philippines, 1898–1913. Westport, CT: Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-275-96821-2.
- Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M.; La Boda, Sharon (1996). International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-884964-04-6.
- Saunders, Graham (2013). A History of Brunei. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-136-87401-7.
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(help) - Rottman, Gordon L. (2002). World War 2 Pacific Island Guide – A Geo-Military Study. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-31395-0.
- Rowthorn, Chris; Bloom, Greg (2006). Philippines (9th ed.). Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-1-74104-289-4.
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(help) - Scott, William Henry (1994). Barangay: Sixteenth-century Philippine Culture and Society. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. ISBN 978-971-550-135-4.
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(help) - Solheim, Wilhelm G. II (2006). Archeology and Culture in Southeast Asia. University of the Philippines Press. ISBN 978-971-542-508-7.
- Spate, Oskar H.K. (1979). "Magellan's Successors: Loaysa to Urdaneta. Two failures: Grijalva and Villalobos". The Spanish Lake – The Pacific since Magellan. Vol. I. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-7099-0049-8.
- Tarling, Nicholas (1999). "Part Two – From c. 1500 to c. 1800". The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia. Vol. 1. Cambridge, RU: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66370-0.
- Tarling, Nicholas (2000). "From World War II to the Present". The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia. Vol. 4. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66372-4.
- Tople, Lily Rose R.; Nonan-Mercado, Detch P. (2002). Philippines. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-1475-9.
- Ure, John (2008). Telecommunications Development in Asia. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-962-209-903-6.
- Welman, Frans (2013). Borneo Trilogy Brunei: Vol 1. Booksmango. ISBN 978-616-222-235-1.
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(help) - Zaide, Gregorio F. (1957). Philippine Political and Cultural History. Philippine Education Co.
- Zanini, Gianni (1999). Philippines: From Crisis to Opportunity : Country Assistance Review. World Bank Publications. ISBN 978-0-8213-4294-7.
- Zialcita, Fernando Nakpil (2005). Authentic Though not Exotic: Essays on Filipino Identity. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. ISBN 978-971-550-479-9.
- Zibart, Eve (2001). The Ethnic Food Lover's Companion: Understanding the Cuisines of the World. Menasha Ridge Press. ISBN 978-0-89732-372-7.
- "Philippines in Figures 2014" (PDF). Philippine Statistics Authority. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 20, 2015. Retrieved November 16, 2014.
- Department of Health (2018). "National Objectives for Health Philippines, 2017-2022" (PDF). National Objectives for Health. Manila, Philippines: Health Policy Development and Planning Bureau. ISSN 1908-6768. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 13, 2020. Retrieved September 13, 2020.
External links
Government
- Official website of the National Government of the Republic of the Philippines
- Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines
- Official website of the Senate of the Philippines
- Official website of the House of Representatives of the Philippines
- Official website of the Supreme Court of the Philippines
- Official website of Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (Central Bank of the Philippines)
- Official website of the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA)
- Official website of the Philippine National Police (PNP)
- Official website of the Department of Tourism
- The Philippines Online Tourism Guide
Trade
General information
- Philippines profile from the BBC News
- Philippines at the Wayback Machine (archived May 21, 2011) at UCB Libraries GovPubs
- "Philippines". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency.
- Philippines at Curlie
- Philippines at Encyclopædia Britannica
Geographic data related to Philippines at OpenStreetMap
- Philippine News and Current Events
- Key Development Forecasts for the Philippines from International Futures
Books and articles
- History of the Philippine Islands in many volumes, from Project Gutenberg (indexed under Emma Helen Blair, the general editor)
- Weedon, Alan (August 10, 2019). "The Philippines is fronting up to its Spanish heritage, and for some it's paying off". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. About the influence of the Spanish people and language
- Crow, Carl (1914). America and the Philippines. Doubleday, Page.
- Worcester, Dean C. (1898). The Philippine Islands and their People. Macmillan & co.
- Rice, Mark (2014). Dean Worcester's Fantasy Islands: Photography, Film, and the Colonial Philippines. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-05218-9.
Wikimedia
Other
- Asian Development Bank (ADB)
- Filipinana.net – Free digital library and a research portal
- WikiSatellite view of Philippines at WikiMapia
- CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2020
- Philippines
- English-speaking countries and territories
- Former colonies in Asia
- Former Spanish colonies
- Island countries
- Maritime Southeast Asia
- Member states of ASEAN
- Member states of the United Nations
- Newly industrializing countries
- Republics
- Southeast Asian countries
- Spanish East Indies
- States and territories established in 1565
- States and territories established in 1898
- States and territories established in 1946
- Volcanic arc islands
- Countries in Asia